Title: A catalogue of the Portland Museum : lately the property of the Duchess Dowager of Portland deceased which will be sold by auction, by Mr. Skinner and Co. on Monday the 24th of April, 1786, and the thirty-seven following days ... Sundays, and the 5th of June ... excepted .. Identifier: catalogueofportl00port Year: 1786 (1780s) Authors: Portland, Margaret Cavendish Holles Harley, Duchess of, 1714-1785; Lightfoot, John, 1735-1788; Dance, S. Peter, associated name. DSI; Berry, S. Stillman (Samuel Stillman), 1887-1984, former owner. DSI; Roper, Clyde F. E. , 1937- , donor. DSI; Skinner and Company Subjects: Zoological specimens; Art objects; Mollusks Publisher: [London : s. n. ] Contributing Library: Smithsonian Libraries Digitizing Sponsor: Biodiversity Heritage Library View Book Page: Book Viewer About This Book: Catalog Entry View All Images: All Images From Book Click here to view book online to see this illustration in context in a browseable online version of this book. Text Appearing Before Image: 0^ U 24 f 2 24,«3 «4'4 2417 2418 1/ -?4'9 2420 3422 24^3 3426 2427 ^428 7' 4f. C no ^ CyJ^/Z^-w^ J A fine black box and cover^ wlt]> a horfe on the topj a ditto brown and gold wltl flowers and leaves, a ditto in the fhape of a jar, a ditto wheatfheaf.pattern, a . ditto ivory, inlaid,, a ditto.witli.a tree, 2 ditto with rofes, a trayV a box, and a . piece of carved ivory A large and fine japan cabinet, with drawers infide, and folding doors, on a carved aiid gilt, frame. A fine toilet pot and cover, ofthe flat gold japan, a ditto in 3. parts, a fmall bafon and cover, a black and gold bafor> and cover,.fcarlet infide, with red and gold. flowers, and a brown outfide bafon and cover A matclilefs box in the form of a wheatfheaf,. a ditto in the form of a fan,., very, rich of tlie gold and filver japan, A very curious japan bafket, gilt infide, and ornamented .with leaves and .fprigs, , filver riogs,. and a fquare tray Two very rich fexagon trays, of the gold japan, a fftiall long box, containing 3, infides, 2 diamond fhape boxes, with red flowers, .rofes, and lea.ves A "very^rare and capital fexcigon box, "with a traj, fcclloped and feet, the cover richly i ornamented ivith goU of the honey-comb pattern, and lea'ves, the fgure of an animal. at top, contains 7 fmall infde boxes, and.covers, reprefenting fruit; the tray exceed- ing rich and Jludde^i nvith fiver An extraordinary fine box of the black and gold,ornaraented.with.gpld and filver. rofes, and a fine fhaped box, with a jofs and tray A capital waiter of the fan-pattern,, with a. ricJi fludded border, of the fine gold japan - ^ /J- A capital jewel box, in 3 parts ^ /j An elegant gold fand, and 2 very fine Jhaped boxes vjith a tray, 3 infde boxes to each A jewel cabinet, with drawers, of the black and gpld, ftudded with filver, and- /y^ /O filver flowers ^^ /q - Avery capital and maichlefs box and cover, with gold ornaments and coral fowlers- % ^. /-3 A fuperbe unique box, ofthe gold and fiver japan, vaith a tray and a blue flk cafey ^ —- » y} capital large glafs cafe, in tvjo parts, inlaid nuith coloured pearly in an elegant file,, ^ ^ ^ nx'ith fielves and folding doors to each, 'wilh large plate glafs ^, A ditto, the companion—equally beautiful t^- A very accurate model of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerufalem, moft elaborateljs^ finiftied, and beautifully inlaid with mother-of-pearl, very fine (3* - S 'I 7 5 - a. 2429 3430 243' 2432 c^^. -lo Oyy^'Vr^^ H33 c A n I N E r s, Two mahogany china Ibelves,.with plate glafs doors A very neat miniature cabinet, vaneered witli fine woods Five fmall cabinets for infefts, &c. A very neat mahogany ditto, with 18 drawers, lined with cork and glazed.. A mahogany table for forting fhells, with a rim on the back _ 2434 Twe Text Appearing After Image: 1 Note About Images Please note that these images are extracted from scanned page images that may have been digitally enhanced for readability - coloration and appearance of these illustrations may not perfectly resemble the original work.

Title: An encyclopedia of plants; : comprising the specific culture, history, application in the arts, and every other desirable particular respecting all the plants indigenous, cultivated in, or introduced to Britain: combining much of the information contained Identifier: 01063918.91195.emory.edu Year: 1841 (1840s) Authors: Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius), 1783-1843 Subjects: Botany Publisher: Contributing Library: Emory University, Manuscript, Archives and Rare Book Library Digitizing Sponsor: Emory University, Manuscript, Archives and Rare Book Library View Book Page: Book Viewer About This Book: Catalog Entry View All Images: All Images From Book Click here to view book online to see this illustration in context in a browseable online version of this book. Text Appearing Before Image: 478 POLY AND RIA POLYGYNIA. Class XIII. 1214. DILLE/NIA. W. 7900 speciosa W. 1215. ILLI'CIUM W. 7901 floridanum W. 7902 parviflomm W. DlLLENIA. large-flowered J □ tm Aniseed-Tree. red-flowered * I or yellow-flowered it | or 1216. LIRIODEN'DRON. W. Tulip-tree. 7903 tuliptfera W. jS obtusiloba t*1217. MAGNCLIA 7904 grandiflora W. a clliptica /S obovata y lanceoldta 7905 glatfca PA. 7906 longifolia PA. 7907 consplcua H. K. M. Yulan Dec. 7908 obovata W. 7909 toment6sa Thumb. M. gracilis Thunb. M. Kobus Dec. §7910pumila W. 7911 fuscata H. K. W. Magnolia. Laurel-leaved ferruginous broad-leaved long-leaved decidu. swamp evergr. swamp Yulan purple slender Dilleniacete. ... Y Magnoliacete. or 8 ap.jn R or 6 my.jn Y Magnoliacete. or 60 jn.jl Y.r or 60 jnjl Y.r Magnoliacete. jn.o W jn.o jn.o jn.o ju.s jn.s f.ap W W W W W W Sp. 1—9. E. Indies 1800. Sp. 2—3. Florida 1766. Florida 1790. Sp. 1. N. Amer. 1663. Pensylv. 1663. Sp. 14—17. Carolina 1734. Carolina 1734. Carolina 1734. Carolina 1734. N. Amer. 1688. N. Amer. ... China 1789. | or 6 ap. lor 20 dwarf brown-stalked (3 ann&ruefdlia P. L. small-flowered * | | or 7912 cordata PA. 7913 acuminata W. 7914 tripetala W. M. umbrella Lam. 7915 macrophylla PA. 7916 auriculata W. 7917 pyramidata 1% heart-leaved bluish-flowered '■ umbrella long-leaved | ear-leaved pyramidal ; _.jn Pu mr.ap Pu ja.d W ap.my Br ip.my Br jn.jl Y.w my.jl Y.o my.jn W jnjl W ap.my W ap.my W China China 1790. 1804. C p.l Ex. bot. 1.1.2,3 L s.p Bot. mag. 439 L p.1 Vent. eels. 22 S s.l Bot mag. 275 S 8.1 L Lp Bot. rep. 513 L Lp Bot rep. 518 L Lp L Lp Mich. arb. 11 S p.l Bot mag. 2164 S p.l G p.l Bot mag. 1621 L p.l Bot. map. 390 L p.l Par. lona 87 China 1786. China 1789. China 1804. N. Amer. 1801. N. Amer. 1736. N. Amer. 1752. N. Amer. 1800. Carolina 1786. Carolina 1811. Bot mag. 97/ Bot. mag. 1008 Par. lond. 5 Bot. cab. 474 Bot cab. 418 Mich. arb. t 5 S p.l Bot mag. 2189 L p.l Bot. mag. 1206 G p.l Bot reg. 407 7905 Text Appearing After Image: History, Use, Propagation, Culture, modem attempts to cultivate it in Europe, though with the assistance of artificial heat, seldom have succeeded. Dr. Patrick Browne is of opinion that the ancients confounded two plants under the name of Lotus or Egyptian bean, and that under these titles they described the upper parts of the Nympha»a Nelumbo, and the roots of the lesser Colocasia, now commonly called coccos in Jamaica, Arum Colocasia. (Jam. 243. 332.) In our stoves the Nelumbium should! be grown in a tub or large pot, in a rich loamy soil, and requires a strong heat to flower in perfection. The pot or tub should be kept full of water all the time the plants are growing, but may be allowed to get dry when the flowering season is over. The plants may be increased by dividing at the root, but it is obtained more readily from seeds, which vegetate freely. (But. Cult. 83.) Kent of Clapton says, that the seeds will keep forty years, vegetate freely, and flower the first year. {Hort. Trans, iii. 36.) 1214. Diliana. So named by Linnaeus, in honor of John James Dillenius, the famous professor of botany at Oxford, author of Historia Muscorum, Hortus Elthamensis, &c. The species are beautiful trees, with large leathery leaves, and axillary or terminating flowers often also large. They thrive best in a light loamy soiL Ripened cuttings, not deprived of their leaves, strike root freely, in a pot of sand plunged under a hand-glass in heat Good seeds sometimes arrive from India, when the sooner they are sown the better; placed in a moderate hot-bed frame, they will succeed welL (Bot. Cult. 50.) 1215. IIIicium. From illicio, to attract, on account of its agreeable perfune. I. floridanum hajs very fragrant leaves, and capsules having a strong smell of anise when rubbed. This species, and more especially anisatum is powerfully carminative and stomachic. In China it is in frequent use for seasoning dishes, especially such as are sweet In Japan they place bundles and garlands of the aniseed-tree in their temples before their idols, and on the tombs of their friends. They also use the powdered bark as incense to their idols. A branch put into the decoction of Tetraodon hispidum is supposed to increase the virulence of that poison. The bark, finely powdered, is used by the public watchmen to make a chronometer or instrument for measuring the hours, by slowly sparkling at certain intervals in a box, in order to direct when the public bells are to sound. Ripened cuttings will root in sand, but the plant is most readily increased by layers. 1216. Liriodendron. From Xufio, a lily, and SmSfn, a tree. The flowers, which may be likened to a lily or tulip, grow upon one of the loftiest trees of the forest. A smooth tree, not less admired for its fiddle-shaped leaves, than its tulip-like flowers, which are produced at the end of the branches; they are composed of six petals, three without and three within, which form a sort of bell-shaped flower, whence the inhabitants of North America gaVe it the title of tulip. These petals are marked with green, yellow, and red spots, making a fine appearance when the trees are well charged with flowers. When the flowers drop the germ swells, and forms a kind of cone, but it does not ripen in England. The timber is used in America for canoes, but is unfit for boards or planks, as it contracts and expands more than the wood of any other tree. The tulip tree is now very common in Europe; in the south of France and Italy, it is frequent in public avenues, and flowers when twenty or thirty feet high, and of six or seven years growth. In Britain it requires a. Note About Images Please note that these images are extracted from scanned page images that may have been digitally enhanced for readability - coloration and appearance of these illustrations may not perfectly resemble the original work.

Title: Arboretum et fruticetum britannicum; or, The trees and shrubs of Britain, native and foreign, hardy and half-hardy, pictorially and botanically delineated, and scientifically and popularly described; with their propagation, culture, management, and uses in the arts, in useful and ornamental plantations, and in landscape-gardening; preceded by a historical and geographical outline of the trees and shrubs of temperate climates throughout the world Identifier: arboretumetfrut02loud Year: 1838 (1830s) Authors: Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius), 1783-1843 Subjects: Botany; Trees; Forests and forestry Publisher: London, Printed for the author Contributing Library: NCSU Libraries Digitizing Sponsor: NCSU Libraries View Book Page: Book Viewer About This Book: Catalog Entry View All Images: All Images From Book Click here to view book online to see this illustration in context in a browseable online version of this book. Text Appearing Before Image: described in Don's MiUa; on the authorrty of Don Roxas Clemente y Rubio's edition of Horrera's AgricuHura; and 32 in the Nouvcau Du Hamel. All these siibvarieties deserve trial in new colonies, ^(^ ||' where it is desired to introduce the culture of the olive; but, for those ,^, who cannot procure the whole of them, we give the following ^ selection from Michaux's N. Amer. Syl., p. 192., as comprising those most ^ esteemed in France :— 1. Olivier plein-fur (O'lea craniom6rpha N. Du Ham., v. p. 75. No. 14.) is one of the largest and finest trees. Its branches are numerous, and pendent, like those of the weeping willow. Its fruit is good for the table, and yields a pure and abundant oil. This tree should be placed in valleys rather than on elevated grounds, as it has more to apprehend from drought than from cold. There are individuals of this kind, in Languedoc, that have three times survived the general destruction of the common olives by frost. 2. Olivier ii Fruit arrondi (OMea sphse'rica A'. Du Ham., v. p. 78. No. 26.) is also among the kinds least sensible to cold. It requires moisture, a good soil, and abundant manure. Its oil is of a superior quality. o. Olivier dc Lucques (O'lea minor luciSnsis N. Du Ham., v. p. 72. No. 9.) is hardy, and yields a fruit proper for preserving. 4. and 5. Olivier u petit Fruit rond, N. Du Ham., v. p. 72. No. 2.; and Olivier de Salon, N. Du Ham., v. p. 76. No. 19.; are good for oil, and prefer dry and elevated grounds. 6. Olivier amygdalin (O'lea amygdalina iV. Du Ham., v. p. 78. No. 25.) is much esteemed about Montpelier for its fine and abundant oil, 7. Olive Piciioline (Pignola, Ital.; O'lea oblonga N. Du Ham., v No. 12.) yields the kind of olives most celebrated for pickling, the choice of soil and climate. O. excelsa Ait. is a native of Madeira, whence it was introduced in 1784. It has stood out in Ireland, forseveril years, without any protection whatever, in the nursery of Mr. Robertson of Kilkenny, who thinks it will ultimately prove a valuable addition to our hardy evergreens. (See Gard. Mag., vol. iii. p. 106.) In July, 1836, this tree measured .'30 ft. in height, and the head 7 ft. in diameter A second tree of the same species, Mr. Robertson informs us, has stood out equally well in an exposed situation , and neither has ever received any protection whatever. O. americniui L., Michx. Arb. Amer., 3. t. 6., and our fig. 1034., the devil-wood of the Americans, is a tree, a native of the southern states, as far north as Norfolk, in Virginia. It is sometimes found as high as 30 ft. or 55 ft., but its ordinary height is 10 ft. or 12 ft. The leaves are 4 in. or 5 in. long, of a shining light green ; and they re- main on two or three years. The fertile and barren flowers, Michaux states, are on separate trees; though, according to Linn^^us (Maul.), there are male and female flowers on the same plant with hermaphrodites. The flowers are very small, of a pale yellow, and strongly scented; appearing about the end of April. The fruit is round, about twice the size of the common pea; and, when ripe, of a purple colour, approaching to blue. It ripens in Octol)er, and remains attached to the tree dunng a great part of the winter, forming a fine contrast to the toliage 1 his plant is considerably hardier than the common olive; and, in the climate of London, would probably stand the open air, in a sheltered situation as a standard. There is a very handsome flourishing plant against the wall' in the arboretum of Messrs. Loddiges, which receives no protection whatever' O. jrhgrans Thunb., Bot. Mag., t. 1552., Bot. Cab., t. 1786., and our fi.^r 1035 f IS a native of Japan and China, where it is much cultivated for the sake o Its sweet-scented flowers ; which, it is said, are used for giving flavour to tea' The plant, though not very hardy, would probably stand against a conservative wall, with a httle protection. The scent of this plant, Messrs Loddiges observe, is astonishing; and so diffusive, that we distinctly noticed it when in bloom on the back wall of our green-house, at considerably mor'e than 100 yards'distance." (Bo#. Ca6., 1.1786.) p. 74. This variety is not delicate in 103^- Text Appearing After Image: O. capiimis L.; 0. ftuxitblia Mill., Hort. Eltli., 1. t. 160. f 194 Bot Ree t &I0.; has coriaceous, oblong, dense, and rigid leaves. It is a native of the' Cape of Good Hope, where it forms a tall tree; and, if crafted on the common privet, would doubtless stand against a conservative wall, with a Note About Images Please note that these images are extracted from scanned page images that may have been digitally enhanced for readability - coloration and appearance of these illustrations may not perfectly resemble the original work.

Title: Arboretum et fruticetum britannicum; or, The trees and shrubs of Britain, native and foreign, hardy and half-hardy, pictorially and botanically delineated, and scientifically and popularly described; with their propagation, culture, management, and uses in the arts, in useful and ornamental plantations, and in landscape-gardening; preceded by a historical and geographical outline of the trees and shrubs of temperate climates throughout the world Identifier: arboretumetfrut02loud Year: 1838 (1830s) Authors: Loudon, J. C. (John Claudius), 1783-1843 Subjects: Botany; Trees; Forests and forestry Publisher: London, Printed for the author Contributing Library: NCSU Libraries Digitizing Sponsor: NCSU Libraries View Book Page: Book Viewer About This Book: Catalog Entry View All Images: All Images From Book Click here to view book online to see this illustration in context in a browseable online version of this book. Text Appearing Before Image: 1208 ARBORETUM AND FRUTICETUM. PART III. Text Appearing After Image: described in Don's MiUa; on the authorrty of Don Roxas Clemente y Rubio's edition of Horrera's AgricuHura; and 32 in the Nouvcau Du Hamel. All these siibvarieties deserve trial in new colonies, ^(^ ||' where it is desired to introduce the culture of the olive; but, for those ,^, who cannot procure the whole of them, we give the following ^ selection from Michaux's N. Amer. Syl., p. 192., as comprising those most ^ esteemed in France :— 1. Olivier plein-fur (O'lea craniom6rpha N. Du Ham., v. p. 75. No. 14.) is one of the largest and finest trees. Its branches are numerous, and pendent, like those of the weeping willow. Its fruit is good for the table, and yields a pure and abundant oil. This tree should be placed in valleys rather than on elevated grounds, as it has more to apprehend from drought than from cold. There are individuals of this kind, in Languedoc, that have three times survived the general destruction of the common olives by frost. 2. Olivier ii Fruit arrondi (OMea sphse'rica A'. Du Ham., v. p. 78. No. 26.) is also among the kinds least sensible to cold. It requires moisture, a good soil, and abundant manure. Its oil is of a superior quality. o. Olivier dc Lucques (O'lea minor luciSnsis N. Du Ham., v. p. 72. No. 9.) is hardy, and yields a fruit proper for preserving. 4. and 5. Olivier u petit Fruit rond, N. Du Ham., v. p. 72. No. 2.; and Olivier de Salon, N. Du Ham., v. p. 76. No. 19.; are good for oil, and prefer dry and elevated grounds. 6. Olivier amygdalin (O'lea amygdalina iV. Du Ham., v. p. 78. No. 25.) is much esteemed about Montpelier for its fine and abundant oil, 7. Olive Piciioline (Pignola, Ital.; O'lea oblonga N. Du Ham., v No. 12.) yields the kind of olives most celebrated for pickling, the choice of soil and climate. O. excelsa Ait. is a native of Madeira, whence it was introduced in 1784. It has stood out in Ireland, forseveril years, without any protection whatever, in the nursery of Mr. Robertson of Kilkenny, who thinks it will ultimately prove a valuable addition to our hardy evergreens. (See Gard. Mag., vol. iii. p. 106.) In July, 1836, this tree measured .'30 ft. in height, and the head 7 ft. in diameter A second tree of the same species, Mr. Robertson informs us, has stood out equally well in an exposed situation , and neither has ever received any protection whatever. O. americniui L., Michx. Arb. Amer., 3. t. 6., and our fig. 1034., the devil-wood of the Americans, is a tree, a native of the southern states, as far north as Norfolk, in Virginia. It is sometimes found as high as 30 ft. or 55 ft., but its ordinary height is 10 ft. or 12 ft. The leaves are 4 in. or 5 in. long, of a shining light green ; and they re- main on two or three years. The fertile and barren flowers, Michaux states, are on separate trees; though, according to Linn^^us (Maul.), there are male and female flowers on the same plant with hermaphrodites. The flowers are very small, of a pale yellow, and strongly scented; appearing about the end of April. The fruit is round, about twice the size of the common pea; and, when ripe, of a purple colour, approaching to blue. It ripens in Octol)er, and remains attached to the tree dunng a great part of the winter, forming a fine contrast to the toliage 1 his plant is considerably hardier than the common olive; and, in the climate of London, would probably stand the open air, in a sheltered situation as a standard. There is a very handsome flourishing plant against the wall' in the arboretum of Messrs. Loddiges, which receives no protection whatever' O. jrhgrans Thunb., Bot. Mag., t. 1552., Bot. Cab., t. 1786., and our fi.^r 1035 f IS a native of Japan and China, where it is much cultivated for the sake o Its sweet-scented flowers ; which, it is said, are used for giving flavour to tea' The plant, though not very hardy, would probably stand against a conservative wall, with a httle protection. The scent of this plant, Messrs Loddiges observe, is astonishing; and so diffusive, that we distinctly noticed it when in bloom on the back wall of our green-house, at considerably mor'e than 100 yards'distance." (Bo#. Ca6., 1.1786.) p. 74. This variety is not delicate in 103^- Note About Images Please note that these images are extracted from scanned page images that may have been digitally enhanced for readability - coloration and appearance of these illustrations may not perfectly resemble the original work.

Woodblock print; 36.8 x 25.1 cm. Utagawa Kunisada (Japanese: 歌川 国貞; also known as Utagawa Toyokuni III (三代歌川豊国); 1786 – 12 January 1865) was the most popular, prolific and financially successful designer of ukiyo-e woodblock prints in 19th-century Japan. In his own time, his reputation far exceeded that of his contemporaries, Hokusai, Hiroshige and Kuniyoshi. At the end of the Edo Period (1603–1867), Hiroshige, Kuniyoshi and Kunisada were the three best representatives of the Japanese color woodcut in Edo (capital city of Japan, now Tokyo). However, among European and American collectors of Japanese prints, beginning in the late 19th and early 20th century, all three of these artists were actually regarded as rather inferior to the greats of classical ukiyo-e, and therefore as having contributed considerably to the downfall of their art. For this reason, some referred to their works as "decadent". Beginning in the 1930s and 1970s, respectively, the works of Hiroshige and Kuniyoshi were submitted to a re-evaluation, and these two are now counted among the masters of their art. Thus, from Kunisada alone was withheld, for a long time, the acknowledgment which is due to him. With a few exceptions, such as actor portraits (yakusha-e) and portraits of beautiful women (Bijinga), at the beginning of his career, and some series of large-size actor head-portraits near the end, it was thought that he had produced only inferior works. It was not until the early 1990s, with the appearance of Jan van Doesburg's overview of the artistic development of Kunisada, and Sebastian Izzard's extensive study of his work, that this picture began to change, with Kunisada more clearly revealed as one of the "giants" of the Japanese print that he was. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunisada

© Schauer Christian Don´t use my Imigags without my writen permission. www.facebook.com/paintingwithlightbyschauer www.schauer-christian.de/ instagram.com/paintingwithlightschauer/ #schauer Das Oktoberfest in München (mundartlich Wiesn) ist das größte Volksfest der Welt. Es findet seit 1810 auf der Theresienwiese in der bayerischen Landeshauptstadt München statt und wird Jahr für Jahr von rund sechs Millionen Menschen besucht; 2012 waren es 6,4 Millionen Besucher.[1] Für das Oktoberfest brauen die Münchner Brauereien ein spezielles Bier, das eine Stammwürze von mindestens 13,5 % aufweisen muss[2] und folglich mehr Alkohol als gewöhnliches Vollbier enthält (2013 zwischen 5,8 und 6,4 %). Anlässlich der Hochzeit zwischen Kronprinz Ludwig und Prinzessin Therese am 12. Oktober 1810 fanden in München zahlreiche private und öffentliche Feiern statt. Auf deren letzte, das Pferderennen am 17. Oktober, geht das Oktoberfest zurück. Vermutlich im Gedanken an das 1786 letztmals ausgetragene Scharlachrennen, das im 15. Jahrhundert erstmals vor dem Karlstor stattfand und Teil der Jakobidult wurde, schlug Andreas Michael Dall’Armi in seiner Funktion als Major der Nationalgarde ein Pferderennen zur öffentlichen Huldigung des Brautpaares vor. Überliefert ist, dass die initiale Idee, die zu diesem Vorhaben führte, von dem Lohnkutscher und Unteroffizier der Nationalgarde Franz Baumgartner ausging. Dieser Ursprung des Festes gilt jedoch als nicht unumstritten.[4] Der Festplatz außerhalb der Stadt wurde aufgrund seiner natürlichen Eignung ausgesucht. Der Sendlinger Berg (heute Theresienhöhe) wurde als Tribüne für die 40000 Zuschauer des Rennens gebraucht. Die Festwiese blieb bis auf das Königszelt unbebaut. Die Verköstigung der Besucher erfolgte oberhalb der Tribüne auf der Anhöhe, wo „Traiteurs“ u.a. Wein und Bier anboten. Bevor das Rennen begann, erfolgte eine Huldigung der Hochzeiter und des Königshauses in Form eines Zuges aus 16 Kinderpaaren, die mit Trachten der Wittelsbacher, der neun bayerischen Kreise sowie weiterer Regionen bekleidet waren. Anschließend sang ein Chor aus Feiertagsschülern, bevor schließlich das Festrennen mit 30 Pferden auf einer 11200 Schuh (3270 Meter) langen Rennbahn folgte. Als erstes Pferd kam das vom möglichen Initiator Franz Baumgartner über die Ziellinie, der seine Goldmedaille von Rennmeister und Staatsminister Maximilian Graf von Montgelas überreicht bekam. 1813 fiel das Fest aus, da Bayern in die napoleonischen Kriege verwickelt war. Danach wuchs die Wiesn von Jahr zu Jahr. Zur Pferderennbahn kamen Kletterbäume, Kegelbahnen und Schaukeln hinzu. 1818 wurde das erste Karussell aufgestellt. Mehrere Losstände zogen vor allem die ärmeren Stadtbewohner an, da es Porzellan, Silber und Schmuck zu gewinnen gab. 1819 übernahmen die Münchner Stadtväter die Festleitung. Von nun an sollte das Oktoberfest planmäßig jedes Jahr gefeiert werden. Seit 1850 „wacht“ die knapp 20 Meter hohe Statue der Bavaria über die Festwiese. 1853 wurde die Ruhmeshalle zu Füßen der Bavaria fertiggestellt. In den folgenden Jahren fielen einige Feste aus. Grund dafür waren zwei Cholera-Epidemien in den Jahren 1854 und 1873, der Preußisch-Österreichische Krieg 1866 und der Deutsch-Französische Krieg 1870. Gegen Ende des 19. Jahrhunderts entwickelte sich das Oktoberfest immer mehr zu dem heute in aller Welt bekannten Volksfest. Es wurde zeitlich verlängert und in die wegen des Altweibersommers zumeist schönen und warmen letzten Septembertage vorverlegt. Seitdem fällt nur das letzte Wiesnwochenende in den Oktober. Von 1880 an genehmigte die Stadtverwaltung den Bierverkauf und 1881 eröffnete die erste Hendlbraterei. Elektrisches Licht erhellte über 400 Buden und Zelte. Um mehr Sitzplätze für Besucher und Raum für Musikkapellen zu schaffen, errichteten die Brauereien an Stelle der Bierbuden große Bierhallen. Gleichzeitig zog das Fest immer mehr Schausteller und Karussellbesitzer an, die für zusätzliche Unterhaltung sorgten. 1910 feierte die Wiesn ihren 100. Geburtstag und es wurden 12.000 Hektoliter Bier ausgeschenkt. In der Bräurosl, dem damals größten Bierzelt, fanden bereits 12.000 Gäste Platz. Heute ist die Hofbräu-Festhalle mit 10.000 Plätzen das größte Bierzelt auf der Wiesn. Von 1914 bis 1918 fiel das Oktoberfest wegen des Ersten Weltkriegs aus. 1919/1920 feierte man nur ein kleines „Herbstfest“; 1923 gab es wegen galoppierender Inflation kein Oktoberfest. Im November 1923 wurde die Rentenmark eingeführt; 1924 gab es kein Oktoberfest.[6] Während der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus nutzte die NS-Propaganda das Oktoberfest. 1933 wurde der Preis für die Maß Bier auf 90 Pfennig festgelegt; Juden wurde verboten, auf dem Oktoberfest zu arbeiten. 1935 wurde das 125. Wiesn-Jubiläum aufwändig inszeniert; unter anderem mit einem großen Jubiläumsumzug (sein Motto „Stolze Stadt – Fröhlich Land“ sollte für die angebliche Überwindung der Schichten und Klassen stehen; er demonstrierte die Gleichschaltung und die gefestigte Macht des NS-Regimes). 1938 – im März hatte Hitler Österreich annektiert und auf der Münchner Konferenz in der Sudetenfrage auf ganzer Linie gewonnen – wurde das Oktoberfest in „Großdeutsches Volksfest“ umbenannt. Das NS-Regime transportierte eine große Zahl von Sudetendeutschen auf die Festwiese.[7] Während des Zweiten Weltkriegs von 1939 bis 1945 fand kein Fest statt. In der Nachkriegszeit 1946 bis 1948 gab es ein „Herbstfest“. Seit seinem Bestehen war das Oktoberfest damit 24 Mal ausgefallen. Im September 1949 fand das erste Oktoberfest nach dem Krieg statt.[8] 1950 wurde die Wiesn von Thomas Wimmer (Oberbürgermeister von 1948-1960) zum ersten Mal mit dem inzwischen traditionellen Fassanstich im Festzelt Schottenhamel eröffnet. Im Lauf der folgenden Jahrzehnte entwickelte sich das Oktoberfest zum größten Volksfest der Welt. Das Pferderennen wurde nach dem Krieg mit Ausnahme des 150. Jubiläums 1960 und des 200. Jubiläums 2010 nicht mehr veranstaltet. Am 26. September 1980 explodierte am Haupteingang des Festgeländes eine Bombe. 13 Menschen starben, über 200 wurden verletzt (68 davon schwer). Das Oktoberfestattentat gilt als einer der schwersten Terroranschläge der deutschen Geschichte. Bis heute bestehen erhebliche Zweifel, ob der dabei selbst gestorbene rechtsextreme Attentäter Gundolf Köhler allein handelte. Das Oktoberfest zieht jährlich über sechs Millionen Besucher an. Die Gäste kommen immer zahlreicher aus dem Ausland, vorwiegend aus Italien, aus den USA, Japan und Australien. In den letzten Jahren gab es einen Trend zur Tracht: immer mehr der Wiesnbesucher gingen mit Lederhosen bzw. Dirndl dorthin. Der übermäßige Alkoholkonsum eines Teils der Wiesnbesucher wird seit langem thematisiert. Um zu vermeiden, dass die Stimmung auf der Wiesn immer mehr der Stimmung auf dem Ballermann (Mallorca) gleicht, entwickelten 2005 die verantwortlichen Organisatoren das Konzept der Ruhigen Wiesn. Die Zeltbetreiber sind dazu angehalten, bis 18:00 Uhr nur traditionelle Blasmusik zu spielen und die Musiklautstärke auf 85 dB(A) SPL zu begrenzen. Dies soll das Oktoberfest für Familien und ältere Besucher attraktiv halten. Nach 18 Uhr werden auch Schlager und Popmusik gespielt. Von einem Teil der Münchner und der Gäste sowie teilweise in der Presse wird das Fest inzwischen allerdings als nerviges Massenbesäufnis bezeichnet, das mit einem Volksfest nichts zu tun hat. Anlässlich des 200-jährigen Jubiläums wurde 2010 erstmals am Südende der Theresienwiese ein sogenanntes Historisches Oktoberfest auf dem Areal des zentralen Landwirtschaftsfestes gestaltet. Es eröffnete einen Tag vor Beginn des eigentlichen Oktoberfestes gleichfalls mit dem Fassanstich durch den Oberbürgermeister. Auf dem fünf Hektar umfassenden abgezäunten Gelände präsentierten sich historische Fahrgeschäfte, Festzelte und andere historische Attraktionen wie beispielsweise einer Steckerlfischbraterei, einem Kettenkarussell oder einem Zuckerwattestand. Gegen Eintritt können neben dem Museums- ein Tierzelt sowie die Pferderennbahn besichtigt werden. Das Tierzelt beinhaltet unter anderem einen Streichelzoo und wird vom Tierpark Hellabrunn sowie dem Bayerischen Bauernverband betreut. Das Münchner Stadtmuseum übernahm die Gestaltung des Museumszeltes.[10] Begleitet wurde die Jubiläumswiesn von einem künstlerischen und kulturellen Rahmenprogramm, in dem beispielsweise die Biermösl Blosn auftrat. Die Musikkapellen im – mit 850 Sitzplätzen[11] vergleichsweise kleinen – Herzkasperl Festzelt kamen ohne elektrische Verstärkung aus.[12] Namensgebend für das Festzelt war eine bekannte Bühnenfigur des 2009 verstorbenen Schauspielers Jörg Hube.[13] Die sechs Münchner Brauereien Augustiner, Hacker-Pschorr, Hofbräu, Löwenbräu, Paulaner und Spaten präsentierten ausschließlich hier ein gemeinsam gebrautes, dunkles Spezialbier, das nach einer historischen Rezeptur vom Beginn des 19. Jahrhunderts hergestellt wurde. Die Maßkrüge in den Festzelten trugen demgemäß die Aufschrift Münchner Bier und nicht das Unternehmenslogo einer einzelnen Brauerei. Im Gegensatz zum restlichen Oktoberfest schloss die Historische Wiesn bereits um 20 Uhr. Statt der von der Stadtverwaltung erwarteten 300.000 Gäste kamen weit mehr als eine halbe Million Besucher.[14] Das Gelände musste sogar mehrfach, wie sonst nur Bierzelte, wegen Überfüllung vorübergehend geschlossen werden. In den kommenden Jahren wird das Traditionsoktoberfest nach dem Konzept des Wirtschaftsreferenten Dieter Reiter der Stadt München unter der Bezeichnung „Oide Wiesn“ weiterbestehen, allerdings in reduzierter Form. Es wird beispielsweise auf die Pferderennbahn verzichtet. Der Eintrittspreis wurde auf drei Euro vermindert (Öffnungszeiten: 10–22 Uhr, Einlass bis 21 Uhr).[15] Das historische Festzelt wird um 2.000 Plätze vergrößert und die altertümlichen Fahrgeschäfte bleiben erhalten. Die Oide Wiesn wird in Zukunft zur Dauereinrichtung werden. Alle vier Jahre, während des Bayerischen Zentral-Landwirtschaftsfestes, das nächste mal 2016, kann sie aus Platzgründen jedoch nicht aufgebaut werden.[16] Laut dem Münchner Stadtratsbeschluss vom 16. Oktober 2012 betrug der Eintritt für die Oide Wiesn 2013 wieder drei Euro. Erstmals war mit diesem Ticket ein Wiedereinlass möglich. Die historischen Fahrgeschäfte verlangten 2013 einen Euro Eintritt. Im Musikantenzelt erhöhte sich im Innenbereich die Anzahl der Sitzplätze von 1.000 auf 1.500. Im Außenbereich stieg sie von 800 auf 1.000. Die Stadt München unterstützte die Schaustellerstiftung mit 200.000 Euro, damit diese das Museumszelt, das Velodrom sowie ein Kinderprogramm betrieb.[17] 2013 vergrößerte sich das Gelände und schöne Eingänge kamen hinzu. Außerdem war das Museumszelt des Stadtmuseums München/Schaustellerstiftung wie im Jubiläumsjahr 2010 wieder vertreten (n.n. 2011). Das Velodrom wurde vergrößert und den Zuschlag für das Musikantenzelt hatte Fraunhofer Wirt Beppi Bachmaier erhalten und das Zelt unter der Bezeichnung "Herzkasperlzelt" wie 2010 betrieben. Bei der Oiden Wiesn 2011 betrieb noch die Familie Reichert unter dem Namen "Zur Schönheitskönigin" das Musikantenzelt.[18] Gemäß Stadtratsbeschluss gibt es in den Jahren 2014 und 2015 eine Oide Wiesn, ehe 2016 wieder die Zentrale Landwirtschaftsausstellung die Örtlichkeiten auf der Theresienwiese beansprucht. Welche Neuerungen es auf der Oidn Wiesn 2014 gibt, wird Ende April bekanntgegeben, wenn der Münchner Stadtrat entschieden hat. Das Oktoberfest wird im Bairischen meist Wiesn (von Theresienwiese) genannt. Das Genus von Wiesn ist weiblich (die Wiesn, im Bairischen d’Wiesn), der Numerus ist Singular. Da es sich bei Wiesn um die bairische Form von Wiese (Singular) und nicht von Wiesen (Plural) handelt, ist ein Apostroph (Wies'n, suggeriert das Pluralwort Wiesen mit ausgelassenem e) bei der Schreibung nicht nötig. Der Begriff Wiesn wird neben dem Oktoberfest für die Theresienwiese selbst verwendet; man kann also außerhalb der Oktoberfestzeit auf die Wiesn gehen. Während des Oktoberfestes wird die Theresienwiese im offiziellen Sprachgebrauch als Festwiese bezeichnet, so beispielsweise auf den eigens für das Fest montierten Hinweisschildern der öffentlichen Verkehrsmittel. Die Geschichte des Einzugs der Wiesnwirte und Brauereien als feierlicher Auftakt des Oktoberfestes geht zurück auf 1887, als der damalige Wirt Hans Steyrer erstmals von seiner Wirtschaft in der Tegernseer Landstraße samt Personal, Blaskapelle und einer Bierladung auf die Theresienwiese zog. In seiner heutigen Form findet der Einzug im Wesentlichen seit 1935 statt, als erstmals alle Brauereien gemeinsam am Umzug teilnahmen. Seitdem wird der Zug vom Münchner Kindl angeführt. Seit 1950 folgt ihm der amtierende Münchner Oberbürgermeister in der Kutsche der Familie Schottenhamel. Ihnen folgen wiederum die prachtvoll geschmückten Pferdegespanne und Festwagen der Brauereien sowie die Kutschen der anderen Wirte und Schausteller. Begleitet wird der Zug von den Musikkapellen der Festzelte. Nach dem Einzug der Wiesn-Wirte auf Kutschen von der Innenstadt zur Festwiese sticht um Punkt 12:00 Uhr der Oberbürgermeister im Schottenhamel-Festzelt das erste Bierfass an. Mit dem Anstich und dem Ruf „O’zapft is!“ („Es ist angezapft!“) gilt das Oktoberfest als eröffnet. Anschließend werden auf der Treppe der Bavaria zwölf Böllerschüsse abgegeben. Dies ist das Zeichen für die anderen Wirte mit dem Ausschank beginnen zu dürfen.[20] Traditionell erhält der bayerische Ministerpräsident die erste Maß. Danach werden in den anderen Festzelten die ersten Fässer angezapft und Bier an die Wiesnbesucher ausgeschenkt. Jedes Jahr wartet man mit Spannung darauf, wie viele Schläge der Bürgermeister tätigt, bis das erste Bier fließt, und es werden sogar Wetten abgeschlossen. Die beste Leistung liegt bei zwei Schlägen (Ude, 2005, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012 und 2013), es waren aber auch schon 19 Schläge erforderlich (Wimmer, 1950). Trachten- und Schützenzug Zu Ehren der Silberhochzeit von König Ludwig I. von Bayern und Prinzessin Therese fand 1835 erstmals ein Trachtenumzug statt. 1895 organisierte der Heimatschriftsteller Maximilian Schmidt einen weiteren Umzug mit 1400 Teilnehmern in 150 Trachtengruppen.[21][22] Seit 1950 wird dieser jährlich veranstaltet und ist mittlerweile einer der Höhepunkte des Oktoberfests und einer der weltgrößten Umzüge dieser Art. Am ersten Wiesn-Sonntag ziehen 8000 Teilnehmer in ihren historischen Festtagstrachten vom Maximilianeum aus auf einer sieben Kilometer langen Strecke bis zur Festwiese. Auch dieser Umzug wird vom Münchner Kindl angeführt; ihm folgen die Honoratioren des Stadtrates und der Stadtverwaltung und des Freistaates Bayern, meist der Ministerpräsident und dessen Gattin, Trachten- und Schützenvereine, Musikkapellen, Spielmannszüge, farbenprächtige Fahnenschwinger und etwa 40 Kutschen mit festlich geschmückten Pferdegespannen. Die Vereine und Gruppen kommen größtenteils aus Bayern, aber auch aus anderen deutschen Bundesländern, aus Österreich, aus der Schweiz, aus Norditalien und aus anderen europäischen Ländern. Auf dem Oktoberfest sind die Münchner Brauereien Spatenbräu, Augustiner, Paulaner, Hacker-Pschorr, Hofbräu und Löwenbräu mit Festzelten vertreten. Laut Betriebsvorschriften des Festes darf nur Münchner Bier der leistungsfähigen und bewährten Münchner Traditionsbrauereien, das dem Münchner Reinheitsgebot von 1487 und dem Deutschen Reinheitsgebot von 1906 entspricht, ausgeschenkt werden.[23] Dem Besucher stehen 14 große und 15 kleinere Bierzelte zur Auswahl. Da die Zelte in den letzten Jahren manchmal wegen Überfüllung kurzfristig geschlossen werden mussten, hat die Stadt München auf ihrer Homepage ein Wiesnbarometer eingerichtet, das die jeweilige Auslastung der Zelte vorhersagt. Die in den Festzelten verwendeten Maßkrüge sind heute nicht mehr aus Ton, sondern aus Glas, um Schankbetrug zumindest zu erschweren. Sie sind Eigentum der jeweiligen Brauereien. Besonders in den 1980er- und 1990er-Jahren nahmen die Maßkrugdiebstähle stark überhand und das Sicherheitspersonal der Festzelte wurde angewiesen, nach Dieben Ausschau zu halten. Die Festwirtevereinigung stellt bereits seit Jahren generell Strafantrag gegen Maßkrugdiebe. So endet die Mitnahme eines Maßkruges nicht selten als Strafanzeige bei der Polizei. Maßkrüge, die offiziell als Souvenir gekauft werden, sind zur einfacheren Unterscheidung mit einer farbigen Plakette markiert. Seit einigen Jahren wird das Lied, das in den Bierzelten am häufigsten gespielt und mitgesungen wird, von der Boulevardpresse zum sogenannten Wiesn-Hit erklärt. Zahlreiche Printmedien und Radiosender fordern ihre Zielgruppen regelmäßig im zeitlichen Umfeld der Veranstaltung ebenfalls dazu auf entsprechende Musikstücke zu wählen. Da vielen Wiesnbesuchern die Texte nicht immer geläufig sind, gibt es eine Wiesn-Singfibel mit den beliebtesten Liedern. Einige Webseiten und Internetportale bieten ebenfalls Listen der aktuellen Wiesn-Hits einschließlich der Liedtexte an, teilweise mit weiterführenden Hintergrundinformationen. Oktoberfest is the world's largest funfair held annually in Munich, Bavaria, Germany. It is a 16-day festival running from late September to the first weekend in October with more than 6 million people from around the world attending the event every year. Locally, it is often simply called Wiesn, after the colloquial name of the fairgrounds (Theresienwiese) themselves. The Oktoberfest is an important part of Bavarian culture, having been held since 1810. Other cities across the world also hold Oktoberfest celebrations, modeled after the original Munich event. The Munich Oktoberfest originally took place during the 16 days up to, and including, the first Sunday in October. In 1994, the schedule was modified in response to German reunification so that if the first Sunday in October falls on the 1st or 2nd, then the festival would go on until October 3 (German Unity Day). Thus, the festival is now 17 days when the first Sunday is October 2 and 18 days when it is October 1. In 2010, the festival lasted until the first Monday in October, to mark the anniversary of the event. The festival is held in an area named the Theresienwiese (field, or meadow, of Therese), often called Wiesn for short, located near Munich's center. Large quantities of Oktoberfest Beer are consumed, with almost 7 million litres served during the 16 day festival in 2007. Visitors may also enjoy a mixture of attractions, such as amusement rides, sidestalls and games, as well as a wide variety of traditional food such as Hendl (roast chicken), Schweinebraten (roast pork), Schweinshaxe (grilled ham hock), Steckerlfisch (grilled fish on a stick), Würstl (sausages) along with Brezen (pretzel), Knödel (potato or bread dumplings), Käsespätzle (cheese noodles), Reiberdatschi (potato pancakes), Sauerkraut or Rotkohl/Blaukraut (red cabbage) along with such Bavarian delicacies as Obatzda (a spiced cheese-butter spread) and Weisswurst (a white sausage). Crown Prince Ludwig, later to become King Ludwig I, was married to Princess Therese of Saxe-Hildburghausen on October 12, 1810. The citizens of Munich were invited to attend the festivities held on the fields in front of the city gates to celebrate the happy royal event. The fields were named Theresienwiese ("Theresa's meadow") in honor of the Crown Princess, and have kept that name ever since, although the locals have since abbreviated the name simply to the "Wiesn".[1] Horse races in the presence of the Royal Family marked the close of the event that was celebrated as a festival for the whole of Bavaria. The decision to repeat the horse races in the subsequent year gave rise to the tradition of the Oktoberfest. "The festival was eventually prolonged and moved ahead to September to allow for better weather conditions. Today, the last day of the festival is the first Sunday in October. In 2006, the Oktoberfest extended two extra days because the first Tuesday, October 3, was a national holiday. Over the past 200 years, Oktoberfest was cancelled 24 times due to cholera epidemics and war." In 1811, an agricultural show was added to promote Bavarian agriculture. The horse race persisted until 1960, the agricultural show still exists and is held every four years on the southern part of the festival grounds. In 1816, carnival booths appeared; the main prizes were silver, porcelain, and jewelry. The founding citizens of Munich assumed responsibility for festival management in 1819, and it was decided to make the Oktoberfest an annual event. Later, it was lengthened and the date pushed forward, because days are longer and warmer at the end of September. To honour the marriage of Prince Ludwig and Therese of Saxe-Hildburghausen, a parade took place for the first time in 1810. Since 1850, this has become an annual event and an important component of the Oktoberfest. Eight thousand people—mostly from Bavaria—in traditional costumes walk from Maximilian Street through the centre of Munich to the Oktoberfest grounds. The march is led by the Münchner Kindl. Since 1850, the statue of Bavaria has watched the Oktoberfest. This worldly Bavarian patron was first sketched by Leo von Klenze in a classic style and Ludwig Michael Schwanthaler romanticised and "Germanised" the draft. The statue was constructed by Johann Baptist Stiglmaier and Ferdinand von Miller. In 1853, the Bavarian Ruhmeshalle was completed. In 1854, the festival was cancelled after 3,000 residents of Munich died during a cholera epidemic. There was no Oktoberfest in 1866 because Bavaria was involved in the Austro-Prussian War. In 1870, the Franco-Prussian War forced the cancellation of the festival. In 1873, the festival was cancelled due to another cholera epidemic. In 1880, the electric light illuminated more than 400 booths and tents. In 1881, booths selling bratwurst opened. Beer was first served in glass mugs in 1892. At the end of the 19th century, a re-organization took place. Until then, there were games of skittles, large dance floors, and trees for climbing in the beer booths. Organizers wanted more room for guests and musicians. The booths became beer halls. In 1887, the Entry of the Oktoberfest Staff and Breweries took place for the first time. This event showcases the splendidly decorated horse teams of the breweries and the bands that play in the festival tents. This event always takes place on the first Saturday of the Oktoberfest and serves as the official prelude to the Oktoberfest celebration In 1910, Oktoberfest celebrated its 100th anniversary. Some 120,000 litres of beer were poured. In 1913, the Bräurosl was founded, which was the largest Oktoberfest beer tent ever, with room for ~ 12,000 people. From 1914 to 1918, World War I prevented the celebration of Oktoberfest. In 1919 and 1920, the two years after the war, Munich celebrated only an "Autumn Fest." In 1923 and 1924, the Oktoberfest was not held due to inflation. During World War II, from 1939 to 1945, no Oktoberfest took place. Following the war, from 1946 to 1948, Munich celebrated only the "Autumn Fest." The sale of proper Oktoberfest beer—2% stronger in Gravity than normal beer—was not permitted; guests could only drink normal beer. Since 1950, there has been a traditional festival opening: A twelve gun salute and the tapping of the first keg of Oktoberfest beer at 12:00 by the incumbent Mayor of Munich with the cry "O'zapft is!" ("It's tapped!" in the Austro-Bavarian dialect) opens the Oktoberfest. The Mayor then gives the first beer to the Minister-President of the State of Bavaria. The first mayor to tap the keg was Thomas Wimmer. Before the festival officially starts at 12 PM, there is the famous parades of the traditional gun clubs, waitresses and landlords of the tents. Mostly there are two different parades which both end at the Theresienwiesn. They start around 9.45 a.m. and 10.50 a.m.[3] Horse races ended in 1960. By 1960, the Oktoberfest had become a world-famous festival. Since then, foreigners began to picture Germans as wearing the Sennerhut, Lederhosen, and the girls in Dirndl.[citation needed] Traditional visitors wear during the Oktoberfest Bavarian hats (Tirolerhüte), which contain a tuft of goat hair. In Germany, goat hair is highly valued and prized, making it one of the most expensive objects for sale. The more tufts of goat hair on one's hat, the wealthier one is considered to be. Technology helping, this tradition ended with the appearance of cheap goat hair imitations on the market.[citation needed] For them as well as for the general medical treatment of visitors the Bavarian branch of German Red Cross operates an aid facility and provides emergency medical care on the festival grounds, staffed with around 100 volunteer medics and doctors per day.[4] They serve together with special detachments of Munich police, fire department and other municipal authorities in the service centre at the Behördenhof (authorities' court), a large building specially built for the Oktoberfest at the east side of the Theresienwiese, just behind the tents. There is also a place for lost & found children, a lost property office, a security point for women and other public services.[citation needed] Since the 1970s, local German gay organizations have organized "Gay Days" at Oktoberfest, which by the 21st century always began in the Bräurosl tent on the first Sunday.[5] To keep the Oktoberfest, and especially the beer tents, friendly for older people and families, the concept of the "quiet Oktoberfest" was developed in 2005. Until 6:00 pm, the tents only play quiet music, for example traditional wind music. Only after that will Schlager and pop music be played, which had led to more violence in earlier years.[6] The music played in the afternoon is limited to 85 decibels. With these rules, the organisers of the Oktoberfest were able to curb the over-the-top party mentality and preserve the traditional beer tent atmosphere. Since 2005 the last travelling Enterprise ride of Germany, called Mondlift, is back on the Oktoberfest. Starting in 2008, a new Bavarian law intended to ban smoking in all enclosed spaces that are open to the public, even at the Oktoberfest. Because of problems enforcing the anti-smoking law in the big tents there was an exception for the Oktoberfest 2008, although the sale of tobacco was not allowed. After heavy losses in the 2008 local elections with the smoke ban being a big issue in debates, the state's ruling party meanwhile implemented special exemptions to beer tents and small pubs. The change in regulation is aimed in particular at large tents at the Oktoberfest:[7] So, smoking in the tents is still legal, but the tents usually have non-smoking areas.[8] The sale of tobacco in the tents is now legal, but it is abandoned by agreement. However, in early 2010 a referendum held in Bavaria as a result of a popular initiative re-instituted the original, strict, smoking ban of 2008; thus, no beer will be sold to people caught smoking in the tents.[9] The blanket smoking ban will not take effect until 2011, but all tents will institute the smoking ban this year as to do the "dry run" to identify any unforeseeable issues. The common issue when the smoking ban is in effect is the nauseating stench of stale beer spilled on the floor, which the smoking masked.[10] 2010 marked the 200th anniversary of Oktoberfest. For the anniversary, there was a horse race in historical costumes on opening day. A so-called "Historische Wiesn" (historical Oktoberfest) took place, starting one day earlier than usual on the southern part of the festival grounds. A specially brewed beer (solely available at the tents of the historical Oktoberfest), horse races, and a museum tent gave visitors an impression of how the event felt a century ago. Most recently, in 2013, 6.4 million people visited Oktoberfest, and the festival served 6.7 million liters of beer.[11] 1980 Oktoberfest bomb blast[edit] Main article: Oktoberfest terror attack A pipe bomb was set off in a dustbin at the restrooms at the main entrance on September 26, 1980 at 22:19. The bomb consisted of an empty fire extinguisher filled with 1.39 kilograms of TNT and mortar shells. Thirteen people were killed, over 201 were injured, 68 seriously. This was the second deadliest terrorist attack in the history of Germany after the Munich Massacre. Governmental authorities propounded a summary of official inquires, purporting that a right-wing extremist Gundolf Köhler from Donaueschingen, a social outcast who was killed in the explosion, was the lone perpetrator. However, this account is strongly disputed by various groups. Only beer conforming to the Reinheitsgebot, and brewed within the city limits of Munich, can be served at the Munich Oktoberfest. Beers meeting these criteria are designated Oktoberfest Beer. [13] The breweries that can produce Oktoberfest Beer under the criteria are:[14] Augustiner-Bräu Hacker-Pschorr-Bräu Löwenbräu Paulaner Spatenbräu Staatliches Hofbräu-München Oktoberfest Beer is a registered trademark by the Club of Munich Brewers, which consists of the above six breweries. The Oktoberfest is known as the Largest Volksfest (People's Fair) in the World.[16] In 1999 there were six and a half million visitors[17] to the 42 hectare Theresienwiese. 72% of the people are from Bavaria.[18] 15% of visitors come from foreign countries like the surrounding EU-countries and other non-European countries including the United States, Canada, Australia and East Asia.[19] Besides the Oktoberfest, there are other public festivals that take place at the same location. In April/May it's the Munich Frühlingsfest (Spring Festival) and Tollwood-Festival in December with 650,000 visitors. After the Oktoberfest the next largest people fairs in Germany are the Cannstatter Volksfest in Stuttgart with about 4.5 million visitors each year, the Cranger Kirmes in Herne (Wanne-Eickel) (the largest fair in Northrhine-Westphalia) with 4.4 million visitors, the Rheinkirmes in Düsseldorf (called Largest Fair on the Rhine) and the Freimarkt in Bremen (the biggest fair in northern Germany) with over 4 million visitors per year each. Also noteworthy is the "Schützenfest Hannover", the world's largest marksmen's Fun Fair in Hanover with over 1 million visitors per year. Nearly 1,000 tons of rubbish result annually from the Oktoberfest. The mountains of rubbish created are hauled away and the ways cleanly washed down each morning. The cleaning is paid for in part by the city of Munich and in part by the sponsors.[citation needed] In 2004 the queues outside the toilets became so long that the police had to regulate the entrance. To keep traffic moving through the toilets, men headed for the toilets were directed to the urinals (giant enclosed grate) if they only needed to urinate. Consequently, the number of toilets was increased by 20% in 2005. Approximately 1,800 toilets and urinals are available at this time.[citation needed] Many Oktoberfest guests visit the quiet stalls in order to use their phones. For this reason there were plans in 2005 to install a Faraday cage around the toilets or to use Mobile phone jammers to prevent telephoning with a mobile telephone. Jamming devices are, however, illegal in Germany, and Faraday cages made of copper would have been too expensive, so these ambitious plans were dropped, and signs were placed instead, warning toilet users not to use cell phones in the stalls. There are currently fourteen large tents and twenty small tents at the Oktoberfest. The tents are non-permanent structures which are constructed for and only used during the festival. The beer (or wine) served in each is in the accompanying table. Hippodrom – Translates as "Horse race place". One of the larger tents, it's the first tent that many visitors see at the fest. As well as serving normal Wiesn beer, it has a Sekt (sparkling wine) bar and Maß of Weißbier. Considered one of the trendiest tents, and attracts the occasional celebrity. Traditionally in the evening the Oktoberfest band the Münchner Zwietracht (de) plays all the Oktoberfest classics. [21] Armbrustschützenzelt – Translates as the "Crossbowman's Tent", a competition that has been a part of the Oktoberfest since 1895. Hofbräu-Festzelt – The counterpart to the famous Hofbräuhaus, this tent is especially popular with Americans, Australians and New Zealanders. Hacker-Festzelt – One of the largest tents on the Wiesn, they have a rock band that plays during the evening break of the brass band. This tent is also known as "Himmel der Bayern" (Heaven of the Bavarians). Schottenhamel – Reckoned to be the most important tent at the Oktoberfest, mainly because it is where it starts. On the first Saturday of the event, no beer is allowed to be served until the mayor of Munich (currently Dieter Reiter) taps the first keg, at noon.[22] Only then can the other tents begin to serve beer. Very popular amongst younger people. A substantial part of the tent is guaranteed to traditional Studentenverbindungen (a particular form of student fraternities) and outfitted with their distinctive colors and coats of arms. Winzerer Fähndl – Translates as "Winzerers (bavarian surname) flag". This tent is noted for its huge tower, with a Maß of Paulaner beer sitting atop it. Schützen-Festhalle – This is a mid-sized tent. Situated under the Bavaria statue, the current tent was newly built in 2004. Käfers Wiesen Schänke – The smallest of the large tents at the Oktoberfest, it is frequented by celebrities, and is known for its especially good food. In contrast to the other tents (which must close by 11 pm), it is open until 12:30 am, but it can be very difficult to get in. Weinzelt – Translates as "wine tent". This tent offers a selection of more than 15 wines, as well as Weißbier. Löwenbräu-Festhalle – Above the entrance is a 4.50 meter (15 foot) lion who occasionally drinks from his beer. This is overshadowed by another tower where another drinking lion sits. Bräurosl (Hacker-Pschorr) – Translates as "brewers Rosemary". Named after the daughter of the original brewery owner (Pschorr), this tent has the usual brass band and a yodeler. Augustiner-Festhalle – Considered by many locals to be the best tent, due to the fact it sells the favourite local brew, Augustiner, from individually tapped wooden kegs rather than stainless steel vats used by the other tents. Ochsenbraterei – True to its name, this tent offers a great variety of ox dishes. Fischer-Vroni – Translates as "Fishers Veronika". Another of the smaller tents. Fisch is the German word for fish and this tent carries a huge selection in its menu. The main dish is Steckerlfisch, which is grilled outside of the tent. Small Tents[23] Able's Kalbs-Kuchl – Resembling a large Bavarian hut, the “calf kitchen” is traditional and inviting yet still has a lively party atmosphere which Oktoberfest fans crave. Ammer Hühner & Entenbraterei – In 1885, poultry dealer Joseph Ammer was allowed to construct his small booth at the Oktoberfest, creating the world’s first chicken roastery. Duck is offered as well. Bodo's Cafezelt – Don’t come to Bodo’s looking for beer. Instead you’ll find, exotic cocktails, Prosecco, champagne, coffee, donuts, ice cream, pastry, and strudel variations of all kinds. Café Kaiserschmarrn – Beautifully created by Rischart, the Café holds a daily commemoration of the occasion of the first Oktoberfest – the wedding of Ludwig I and Therese of Saxony. Café Mohrenkopf – Since 1950 Café Mohrenkopf has been baking cakes and pies fresh daily in the Oktoberfest tent. Feisingers Ka's und Weinstubn – Cheese and everything that complements the cheese is the specialty of the house in this unique tent. Glöckle Wirt – A visual treat, decorated with oil paintings, antique instruments and cooking utensils, the Glöckle Wirt offers its visitors an authentic Oktoberfest experience in a warm, welcoming atmosphere. Heimer Hendl- und Entenbraterei – Very popular among the locals, Heimer’s is a family-friendly tent where authentic Oktoberfest tradition is timeless. Heinz Wurst- Und Hühnerbraterei – Since 1906, the Heinz Sausage and Chicken Grill has been a fixture on the Wiesn, specializing in authentic Oktoberfest tradition. Hochreiters Haxnbraterei – Quality is paramount in Hochreiter’s tent, where their BBQ experts prepare mouth-watering pork knuckles in the only haxenbraterei on the Wiesn. Münchner Knödelei – The dumpling is an icon of Bavarian cuisine, and “preserving and spreading the dumpling culture” is the motto of this smaller tent. Poschners Hühner- Und Entenbraterei – Poschner’s famous roasted chicken and duck has been a tradition on the Wiesn for four generations. Schiebl's Kaffeehaferl – With seating for about 100, Schiebl’s comfy coffeehouse tent is a friendly meeting place for the whole family. - Haferl is the bavarian term for a (coffee, tea...) mug or pot. Wiesn Guglhupf Café-Dreh-Bar – A Guglhupf is a German cake, like an English bundt cake, and this slowly moving carousel bar is easy to spot because it’s shaped like one. Wildmoser Hühnerbraterei – Owned by family Wildmoser since 1981, this small tent has been adopted and popularized by the Munich locals. Wildstuben – The newest tent at Oktoberfest, you’ll appreciate the intricate details of the woodwork and the homey hunting lodge ambiance. Wirtshaus im Schichtl – The mayor Christian Ude once wrote: "An Oktoberfest without Schichtl is inconceivable. The Schichtl is as essential as the beer, the radish and the chicken." Zum Stiftl – Zum Stiftl is famous for its traditional duck and roasted chicken dishes, cozy atmosphere, and daily entertainment. Zur Bratwurst – Debuting in 2007, the Hochreiter family have brought back the former Bratwurstglöckl in the spirit of good old Munich Oktoberfest. Quelle: de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oktoberfest en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oktoberfest

Früh übt sich... Quelle: de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oktoberfest en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oktoberfest Das Oktoberfest in München (mundartlich Wiesn) ist das größte Volksfest der Welt. Es findet seit 1810 auf der Theresienwiese in der bayerischen Landeshauptstadt München statt und wird Jahr für Jahr von rund sechs Millionen Menschen besucht; 2012 waren es 6,4 Millionen Besucher.[1] Für das Oktoberfest brauen die Münchner Brauereien ein spezielles Bier, das eine Stammwürze von mindestens 13,5 % aufweisen muss[2] und folglich mehr Alkohol als gewöhnliches Vollbier enthält (2013 zwischen 5,8 und 6,4 %). Anlässlich der Hochzeit zwischen Kronprinz Ludwig und Prinzessin Therese am 12. Oktober 1810 fanden in München zahlreiche private und öffentliche Feiern statt. Auf deren letzte, das Pferderennen am 17. Oktober, geht das Oktoberfest zurück. Vermutlich im Gedanken an das 1786 letztmals ausgetragene Scharlachrennen, das im 15. Jahrhundert erstmals vor dem Karlstor stattfand und Teil der Jakobidult wurde, schlug Andreas Michael Dall’Armi in seiner Funktion als Major der Nationalgarde ein Pferderennen zur öffentlichen Huldigung des Brautpaares vor. Überliefert ist, dass die initiale Idee, die zu diesem Vorhaben führte, von dem Lohnkutscher und Unteroffizier der Nationalgarde Franz Baumgartner ausging. Dieser Ursprung des Festes gilt jedoch als nicht unumstritten.[4] Der Festplatz außerhalb der Stadt wurde aufgrund seiner natürlichen Eignung ausgesucht. Der Sendlinger Berg (heute Theresienhöhe) wurde als Tribüne für die 40000 Zuschauer des Rennens gebraucht. Die Festwiese blieb bis auf das Königszelt unbebaut. Die Verköstigung der Besucher erfolgte oberhalb der Tribüne auf der Anhöhe, wo „Traiteurs“ u.a. Wein und Bier anboten. Bevor das Rennen begann, erfolgte eine Huldigung der Hochzeiter und des Königshauses in Form eines Zuges aus 16 Kinderpaaren, die mit Trachten der Wittelsbacher, der neun bayerischen Kreise sowie weiterer Regionen bekleidet waren. Anschließend sang ein Chor aus Feiertagsschülern, bevor schließlich das Festrennen mit 30 Pferden auf einer 11200 Schuh (3270 Meter) langen Rennbahn folgte. Als erstes Pferd kam das vom möglichen Initiator Franz Baumgartner über die Ziellinie, der seine Goldmedaille von Rennmeister und Staatsminister Maximilian Graf von Montgelas überreicht bekam. 1813 fiel das Fest aus, da Bayern in die napoleonischen Kriege verwickelt war. Danach wuchs die Wiesn von Jahr zu Jahr. Zur Pferderennbahn kamen Kletterbäume, Kegelbahnen und Schaukeln hinzu. 1818 wurde das erste Karussell aufgestellt. Mehrere Losstände zogen vor allem die ärmeren Stadtbewohner an, da es Porzellan, Silber und Schmuck zu gewinnen gab. 1819 übernahmen die Münchner Stadtväter die Festleitung. Von nun an sollte das Oktoberfest planmäßig jedes Jahr gefeiert werden. Seit 1850 „wacht“ die knapp 20 Meter hohe Statue der Bavaria über die Festwiese. 1853 wurde die Ruhmeshalle zu Füßen der Bavaria fertiggestellt. In den folgenden Jahren fielen einige Feste aus. Grund dafür waren zwei Cholera-Epidemien in den Jahren 1854 und 1873, der Preußisch-Österreichische Krieg 1866 und der Deutsch-Französische Krieg 1870. Gegen Ende des 19. Jahrhunderts entwickelte sich das Oktoberfest immer mehr zu dem heute in aller Welt bekannten Volksfest. Es wurde zeitlich verlängert und in die wegen des Altweibersommers zumeist schönen und warmen letzten Septembertage vorverlegt. Seitdem fällt nur das letzte Wiesnwochenende in den Oktober. Von 1880 an genehmigte die Stadtverwaltung den Bierverkauf und 1881 eröffnete die erste Hendlbraterei. Elektrisches Licht erhellte über 400 Buden und Zelte. Um mehr Sitzplätze für Besucher und Raum für Musikkapellen zu schaffen, errichteten die Brauereien an Stelle der Bierbuden große Bierhallen. Gleichzeitig zog das Fest immer mehr Schausteller und Karussellbesitzer an, die für zusätzliche Unterhaltung sorgten. 1910 feierte die Wiesn ihren 100. Geburtstag und es wurden 12.000 Hektoliter Bier ausgeschenkt. In der Bräurosl, dem damals größten Bierzelt, fanden bereits 12.000 Gäste Platz. Heute ist die Hofbräu-Festhalle mit 10.000 Plätzen das größte Bierzelt auf der Wiesn. Von 1914 bis 1918 fiel das Oktoberfest wegen des Ersten Weltkriegs aus. 1919/1920 feierte man nur ein kleines „Herbstfest“; 1923 gab es wegen galoppierender Inflation kein Oktoberfest. Im November 1923 wurde die Rentenmark eingeführt; 1924 gab es kein Oktoberfest.[6] Während der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus nutzte die NS-Propaganda das Oktoberfest. 1933 wurde der Preis für die Maß Bier auf 90 Pfennig festgelegt; Juden wurde verboten, auf dem Oktoberfest zu arbeiten. 1935 wurde das 125. Wiesn-Jubiläum aufwändig inszeniert; unter anderem mit einem großen Jubiläumsumzug (sein Motto „Stolze Stadt – Fröhlich Land“ sollte für die angebliche Überwindung der Schichten und Klassen stehen; er demonstrierte die Gleichschaltung und die gefestigte Macht des NS-Regimes). 1938 – im März hatte Hitler Österreich annektiert und auf der Münchner Konferenz in der Sudetenfrage auf ganzer Linie gewonnen – wurde das Oktoberfest in „Großdeutsches Volksfest“ umbenannt. Das NS-Regime transportierte eine große Zahl von Sudetendeutschen auf die Festwiese.[7] Während des Zweiten Weltkriegs von 1939 bis 1945 fand kein Fest statt. In der Nachkriegszeit 1946 bis 1948 gab es ein „Herbstfest“. Seit seinem Bestehen war das Oktoberfest damit 24 Mal ausgefallen. Im September 1949 fand das erste Oktoberfest nach dem Krieg statt.[8] 1950 wurde die Wiesn von Thomas Wimmer (Oberbürgermeister von 1948-1960) zum ersten Mal mit dem inzwischen traditionellen Fassanstich im Festzelt Schottenhamel eröffnet. Im Lauf der folgenden Jahrzehnte entwickelte sich das Oktoberfest zum größten Volksfest der Welt. Das Pferderennen wurde nach dem Krieg mit Ausnahme des 150. Jubiläums 1960 und des 200. Jubiläums 2010 nicht mehr veranstaltet. Am 26. September 1980 explodierte am Haupteingang des Festgeländes eine Bombe. 13 Menschen starben, über 200 wurden verletzt (68 davon schwer). Das Oktoberfestattentat gilt als einer der schwersten Terroranschläge der deutschen Geschichte. Bis heute bestehen erhebliche Zweifel, ob der dabei selbst gestorbene rechtsextreme Attentäter Gundolf Köhler allein handelte. Das Oktoberfest zieht jährlich über sechs Millionen Besucher an. Die Gäste kommen immer zahlreicher aus dem Ausland, vorwiegend aus Italien, aus den USA, Japan und Australien. In den letzten Jahren gab es einen Trend zur Tracht: immer mehr der Wiesnbesucher gingen mit Lederhosen bzw. Dirndl dorthin. Der übermäßige Alkoholkonsum eines Teils der Wiesnbesucher wird seit langem thematisiert. Um zu vermeiden, dass die Stimmung auf der Wiesn immer mehr der Stimmung auf dem Ballermann (Mallorca) gleicht, entwickelten 2005 die verantwortlichen Organisatoren das Konzept der Ruhigen Wiesn. Die Zeltbetreiber sind dazu angehalten, bis 18:00 Uhr nur traditionelle Blasmusik zu spielen und die Musiklautstärke auf 85 dB(A) SPL zu begrenzen. Dies soll das Oktoberfest für Familien und ältere Besucher attraktiv halten. Nach 18 Uhr werden auch Schlager und Popmusik gespielt. Von einem Teil der Münchner und der Gäste sowie teilweise in der Presse wird das Fest inzwischen allerdings als nerviges Massenbesäufnis bezeichnet, das mit einem Volksfest nichts zu tun hat. Anlässlich des 200-jährigen Jubiläums wurde 2010 erstmals am Südende der Theresienwiese ein sogenanntes Historisches Oktoberfest auf dem Areal des zentralen Landwirtschaftsfestes gestaltet. Es eröffnete einen Tag vor Beginn des eigentlichen Oktoberfestes gleichfalls mit dem Fassanstich durch den Oberbürgermeister. Auf dem fünf Hektar umfassenden abgezäunten Gelände präsentierten sich historische Fahrgeschäfte, Festzelte und andere historische Attraktionen wie beispielsweise einer Steckerlfischbraterei, einem Kettenkarussell oder einem Zuckerwattestand. Gegen Eintritt können neben dem Museums- ein Tierzelt sowie die Pferderennbahn besichtigt werden. Das Tierzelt beinhaltet unter anderem einen Streichelzoo und wird vom Tierpark Hellabrunn sowie dem Bayerischen Bauernverband betreut. Das Münchner Stadtmuseum übernahm die Gestaltung des Museumszeltes.[10] Begleitet wurde die Jubiläumswiesn von einem künstlerischen und kulturellen Rahmenprogramm, in dem beispielsweise die Biermösl Blosn auftrat. Die Musikkapellen im – mit 850 Sitzplätzen[11] vergleichsweise kleinen – Herzkasperl Festzelt kamen ohne elektrische Verstärkung aus.[12] Namensgebend für das Festzelt war eine bekannte Bühnenfigur des 2009 verstorbenen Schauspielers Jörg Hube.[13] Die sechs Münchner Brauereien Augustiner, Hacker-Pschorr, Hofbräu, Löwenbräu, Paulaner und Spaten präsentierten ausschließlich hier ein gemeinsam gebrautes, dunkles Spezialbier, das nach einer historischen Rezeptur vom Beginn des 19. Jahrhunderts hergestellt wurde. Die Maßkrüge in den Festzelten trugen demgemäß die Aufschrift Münchner Bier und nicht das Unternehmenslogo einer einzelnen Brauerei. Im Gegensatz zum restlichen Oktoberfest schloss die Historische Wiesn bereits um 20 Uhr. Statt der von der Stadtverwaltung erwarteten 300.000 Gäste kamen weit mehr als eine halbe Million Besucher.[14] Das Gelände musste sogar mehrfach, wie sonst nur Bierzelte, wegen Überfüllung vorübergehend geschlossen werden. In den kommenden Jahren wird das Traditionsoktoberfest nach dem Konzept des Wirtschaftsreferenten Dieter Reiter der Stadt München unter der Bezeichnung „Oide Wiesn“ weiterbestehen, allerdings in reduzierter Form. Es wird beispielsweise auf die Pferderennbahn verzichtet. Der Eintrittspreis wurde auf drei Euro vermindert (Öffnungszeiten: 10–22 Uhr, Einlass bis 21 Uhr).[15] Das historische Festzelt wird um 2.000 Plätze vergrößert und die altertümlichen Fahrgeschäfte bleiben erhalten. Die Oide Wiesn wird in Zukunft zur Dauereinrichtung werden. Alle vier Jahre, während des Bayerischen Zentral-Landwirtschaftsfestes, das nächste mal 2016, kann sie aus Platzgründen jedoch nicht aufgebaut werden.[16] Laut dem Münchner Stadtratsbeschluss vom 16. Oktober 2012 betrug der Eintritt für die Oide Wiesn 2013 wieder drei Euro. Erstmals war mit diesem Ticket ein Wiedereinlass möglich. Die historischen Fahrgeschäfte verlangten 2013 einen Euro Eintritt. Im Musikantenzelt erhöhte sich im Innenbereich die Anzahl der Sitzplätze von 1.000 auf 1.500. Im Außenbereich stieg sie von 800 auf 1.000. Die Stadt München unterstützte die Schaustellerstiftung mit 200.000 Euro, damit diese das Museumszelt, das Velodrom sowie ein Kinderprogramm betrieb.[17] 2013 vergrößerte sich das Gelände und schöne Eingänge kamen hinzu. Außerdem war das Museumszelt des Stadtmuseums München/Schaustellerstiftung wie im Jubiläumsjahr 2010 wieder vertreten (n.n. 2011). Das Velodrom wurde vergrößert und den Zuschlag für das Musikantenzelt hatte Fraunhofer Wirt Beppi Bachmaier erhalten und das Zelt unter der Bezeichnung "Herzkasperlzelt" wie 2010 betrieben. Bei der Oiden Wiesn 2011 betrieb noch die Familie Reichert unter dem Namen "Zur Schönheitskönigin" das Musikantenzelt.[18] Gemäß Stadtratsbeschluss gibt es in den Jahren 2014 und 2015 eine Oide Wiesn, ehe 2016 wieder die Zentrale Landwirtschaftsausstellung die Örtlichkeiten auf der Theresienwiese beansprucht. Welche Neuerungen es auf der Oidn Wiesn 2014 gibt, wird Ende April bekanntgegeben, wenn der Münchner Stadtrat entschieden hat. Das Oktoberfest wird im Bairischen meist Wiesn (von Theresienwiese) genannt. Das Genus von Wiesn ist weiblich (die Wiesn, im Bairischen d’Wiesn), der Numerus ist Singular. Da es sich bei Wiesn um die bairische Form von Wiese (Singular) und nicht von Wiesen (Plural) handelt, ist ein Apostroph (Wies'n, suggeriert das Pluralwort Wiesen mit ausgelassenem e) bei der Schreibung nicht nötig. Der Begriff Wiesn wird neben dem Oktoberfest für die Theresienwiese selbst verwendet; man kann also außerhalb der Oktoberfestzeit auf die Wiesn gehen. Während des Oktoberfestes wird die Theresienwiese im offiziellen Sprachgebrauch als Festwiese bezeichnet, so beispielsweise auf den eigens für das Fest montierten Hinweisschildern der öffentlichen Verkehrsmittel. Die Geschichte des Einzugs der Wiesnwirte und Brauereien als feierlicher Auftakt des Oktoberfestes geht zurück auf 1887, als der damalige Wirt Hans Steyrer erstmals von seiner Wirtschaft in der Tegernseer Landstraße samt Personal, Blaskapelle und einer Bierladung auf die Theresienwiese zog. In seiner heutigen Form findet der Einzug im Wesentlichen seit 1935 statt, als erstmals alle Brauereien gemeinsam am Umzug teilnahmen. Seitdem wird der Zug vom Münchner Kindl angeführt. Seit 1950 folgt ihm der amtierende Münchner Oberbürgermeister in der Kutsche der Familie Schottenhamel. Ihnen folgen wiederum die prachtvoll geschmückten Pferdegespanne und Festwagen der Brauereien sowie die Kutschen der anderen Wirte und Schausteller. Begleitet wird der Zug von den Musikkapellen der Festzelte. Nach dem Einzug der Wiesn-Wirte auf Kutschen von der Innenstadt zur Festwiese sticht um Punkt 12:00 Uhr der Oberbürgermeister im Schottenhamel-Festzelt das erste Bierfass an. Mit dem Anstich und dem Ruf „O’zapft is!“ („Es ist angezapft!“) gilt das Oktoberfest als eröffnet. Anschließend werden auf der Treppe der Bavaria zwölf Böllerschüsse abgegeben. Dies ist das Zeichen für die anderen Wirte mit dem Ausschank beginnen zu dürfen.[20] Traditionell erhält der bayerische Ministerpräsident die erste Maß. Danach werden in den anderen Festzelten die ersten Fässer angezapft und Bier an die Wiesnbesucher ausgeschenkt. Jedes Jahr wartet man mit Spannung darauf, wie viele Schläge der Bürgermeister tätigt, bis das erste Bier fließt, und es werden sogar Wetten abgeschlossen. Die beste Leistung liegt bei zwei Schlägen (Ude, 2005, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012 und 2013), es waren aber auch schon 19 Schläge erforderlich (Wimmer, 1950). Trachten- und Schützenzug Zu Ehren der Silberhochzeit von König Ludwig I. von Bayern und Prinzessin Therese fand 1835 erstmals ein Trachtenumzug statt. 1895 organisierte der Heimatschriftsteller Maximilian Schmidt einen weiteren Umzug mit 1400 Teilnehmern in 150 Trachtengruppen.[21][22] Seit 1950 wird dieser jährlich veranstaltet und ist mittlerweile einer der Höhepunkte des Oktoberfests und einer der weltgrößten Umzüge dieser Art. Am ersten Wiesn-Sonntag ziehen 8000 Teilnehmer in ihren historischen Festtagstrachten vom Maximilianeum aus auf einer sieben Kilometer langen Strecke bis zur Festwiese. Auch dieser Umzug wird vom Münchner Kindl angeführt; ihm folgen die Honoratioren des Stadtrates und der Stadtverwaltung und des Freistaates Bayern, meist der Ministerpräsident und dessen Gattin, Trachten- und Schützenvereine, Musikkapellen, Spielmannszüge, farbenprächtige Fahnenschwinger und etwa 40 Kutschen mit festlich geschmückten Pferdegespannen. Die Vereine und Gruppen kommen größtenteils aus Bayern, aber auch aus anderen deutschen Bundesländern, aus Österreich, aus der Schweiz, aus Norditalien und aus anderen europäischen Ländern. Auf dem Oktoberfest sind die Münchner Brauereien Spatenbräu, Augustiner, Paulaner, Hacker-Pschorr, Hofbräu und Löwenbräu mit Festzelten vertreten. Laut Betriebsvorschriften des Festes darf nur Münchner Bier der leistungsfähigen und bewährten Münchner Traditionsbrauereien, das dem Münchner Reinheitsgebot von 1487 und dem Deutschen Reinheitsgebot von 1906 entspricht, ausgeschenkt werden.[23] Dem Besucher stehen 14 große und 15 kleinere Bierzelte zur Auswahl. Da die Zelte in den letzten Jahren manchmal wegen Überfüllung kurzfristig geschlossen werden mussten, hat die Stadt München auf ihrer Homepage ein Wiesnbarometer eingerichtet, das die jeweilige Auslastung der Zelte vorhersagt. Die in den Festzelten verwendeten Maßkrüge sind heute nicht mehr aus Ton, sondern aus Glas, um Schankbetrug zumindest zu erschweren. Sie sind Eigentum der jeweiligen Brauereien. Besonders in den 1980er- und 1990er-Jahren nahmen die Maßkrugdiebstähle stark überhand und das Sicherheitspersonal der Festzelte wurde angewiesen, nach Dieben Ausschau zu halten. Die Festwirtevereinigung stellt bereits seit Jahren generell Strafantrag gegen Maßkrugdiebe. So endet die Mitnahme eines Maßkruges nicht selten als Strafanzeige bei der Polizei. Maßkrüge, die offiziell als Souvenir gekauft werden, sind zur einfacheren Unterscheidung mit einer farbigen Plakette markiert. Seit einigen Jahren wird das Lied, das in den Bierzelten am häufigsten gespielt und mitgesungen wird, von der Boulevardpresse zum sogenannten Wiesn-Hit erklärt. Zahlreiche Printmedien und Radiosender fordern ihre Zielgruppen regelmäßig im zeitlichen Umfeld der Veranstaltung ebenfalls dazu auf entsprechende Musikstücke zu wählen. Da vielen Wiesnbesuchern die Texte nicht immer geläufig sind, gibt es eine Wiesn-Singfibel mit den beliebtesten Liedern. Einige Webseiten und Internetportale bieten ebenfalls Listen der aktuellen Wiesn-Hits einschließlich der Liedtexte an, teilweise mit weiterführenden Hintergrundinformationen. Oktoberfest is the world's largest funfair held annually in Munich, Bavaria, Germany. It is a 16-day festival running from late September to the first weekend in October with more than 6 million people from around the world attending the event every year. Locally, it is often simply called Wiesn, after the colloquial name of the fairgrounds (Theresienwiese) themselves. The Oktoberfest is an important part of Bavarian culture, having been held since 1810. Other cities across the world also hold Oktoberfest celebrations, modeled after the original Munich event. The Munich Oktoberfest originally took place during the 16 days up to, and including, the first Sunday in October. In 1994, the schedule was modified in response to German reunification so that if the first Sunday in October falls on the 1st or 2nd, then the festival would go on until October 3 (German Unity Day). Thus, the festival is now 17 days when the first Sunday is October 2 and 18 days when it is October 1. In 2010, the festival lasted until the first Monday in October, to mark the anniversary of the event. The festival is held in an area named the Theresienwiese (field, or meadow, of Therese), often called Wiesn for short, located near Munich's center. Large quantities of Oktoberfest Beer are consumed, with almost 7 million litres served during the 16 day festival in 2007. Visitors may also enjoy a mixture of attractions, such as amusement rides, sidestalls and games, as well as a wide variety of traditional food such as Hendl (roast chicken), Schweinebraten (roast pork), Schweinshaxe (grilled ham hock), Steckerlfisch (grilled fish on a stick), Würstl (sausages) along with Brezen (pretzel), Knödel (potato or bread dumplings), Käsespätzle (cheese noodles), Reiberdatschi (potato pancakes), Sauerkraut or Rotkohl/Blaukraut (red cabbage) along with such Bavarian delicacies as Obatzda (a spiced cheese-butter spread) and Weisswurst (a white sausage). Crown Prince Ludwig, later to become King Ludwig I, was married to Princess Therese of Saxe-Hildburghausen on October 12, 1810. The citizens of Munich were invited to attend the festivities held on the fields in front of the city gates to celebrate the happy royal event. The fields were named Theresienwiese ("Theresa's meadow") in honor of the Crown Princess, and have kept that name ever since, although the locals have since abbreviated the name simply to the "Wiesn".[1] Horse races in the presence of the Royal Family marked the close of the event that was celebrated as a festival for the whole of Bavaria. The decision to repeat the horse races in the subsequent year gave rise to the tradition of the Oktoberfest. "The festival was eventually prolonged and moved ahead to September to allow for better weather conditions. Today, the last day of the festival is the first Sunday in October. In 2006, the Oktoberfest extended two extra days because the first Tuesday, October 3, was a national holiday. Over the past 200 years, Oktoberfest was cancelled 24 times due to cholera epidemics and war." In 1811, an agricultural show was added to promote Bavarian agriculture. The horse race persisted until 1960, the agricultural show still exists and is held every four years on the southern part of the festival grounds. In 1816, carnival booths appeared; the main prizes were silver, porcelain, and jewelry. The founding citizens of Munich assumed responsibility for festival management in 1819, and it was decided to make the Oktoberfest an annual event. Later, it was lengthened and the date pushed forward, because days are longer and warmer at the end of September. To honour the marriage of Prince Ludwig and Therese of Saxe-Hildburghausen, a parade took place for the first time in 1810. Since 1850, this has become an annual event and an important component of the Oktoberfest. Eight thousand people—mostly from Bavaria—in traditional costumes walk from Maximilian Street through the centre of Munich to the Oktoberfest grounds. The march is led by the Münchner Kindl. Since 1850, the statue of Bavaria has watched the Oktoberfest. This worldly Bavarian patron was first sketched by Leo von Klenze in a classic style and Ludwig Michael Schwanthaler romanticised and "Germanised" the draft. The statue was constructed by Johann Baptist Stiglmaier and Ferdinand von Miller. In 1853, the Bavarian Ruhmeshalle was completed. In 1854, the festival was cancelled after 3,000 residents of Munich died during a cholera epidemic. There was no Oktoberfest in 1866 because Bavaria was involved in the Austro-Prussian War. In 1870, the Franco-Prussian War forced the cancellation of the festival. In 1873, the festival was cancelled due to another cholera epidemic. In 1880, the electric light illuminated more than 400 booths and tents. In 1881, booths selling bratwurst opened. Beer was first served in glass mugs in 1892. At the end of the 19th century, a re-organization took place. Until then, there were games of skittles, large dance floors, and trees for climbing in the beer booths. Organizers wanted more room for guests and musicians. The booths became beer halls. In 1887, the Entry of the Oktoberfest Staff and Breweries took place for the first time. This event showcases the splendidly decorated horse teams of the breweries and the bands that play in the festival tents. This event always takes place on the first Saturday of the Oktoberfest and serves as the official prelude to the Oktoberfest celebration In 1910, Oktoberfest celebrated its 100th anniversary. Some 120,000 litres of beer were poured. In 1913, the Bräurosl was founded, which was the largest Oktoberfest beer tent ever, with room for ~ 12,000 people. From 1914 to 1918, World War I prevented the celebration of Oktoberfest. In 1919 and 1920, the two years after the war, Munich celebrated only an "Autumn Fest." In 1923 and 1924, the Oktoberfest was not held due to inflation. During World War II, from 1939 to 1945, no Oktoberfest took place. Following the war, from 1946 to 1948, Munich celebrated only the "Autumn Fest." The sale of proper Oktoberfest beer—2% stronger in Gravity than normal beer—was not permitted; guests could only drink normal beer. Since 1950, there has been a traditional festival opening: A twelve gun salute and the tapping of the first keg of Oktoberfest beer at 12:00 by the incumbent Mayor of Munich with the cry "O'zapft is!" ("It's tapped!" in the Austro-Bavarian dialect) opens the Oktoberfest. The Mayor then gives the first beer to the Minister-President of the State of Bavaria. The first mayor to tap the keg was Thomas Wimmer. Before the festival officially starts at 12 PM, there is the famous parades of the traditional gun clubs, waitresses and landlords of the tents. Mostly there are two different parades which both end at the Theresienwiesn. They start around 9.45 a.m. and 10.50 a.m.[3] Horse races ended in 1960. By 1960, the Oktoberfest had become a world-famous festival. Since then, foreigners began to picture Germans as wearing the Sennerhut, Lederhosen, and the girls in Dirndl.[citation needed] Traditional visitors wear during the Oktoberfest Bavarian hats (Tirolerhüte), which contain a tuft of goat hair. In Germany, goat hair is highly valued and prized, making it one of the most expensive objects for sale. The more tufts of goat hair on one's hat, the wealthier one is considered to be. Technology helping, this tradition ended with the appearance of cheap goat hair imitations on the market.[citation needed] For them as well as for the general medical treatment of visitors the Bavarian branch of German Red Cross operates an aid facility and provides emergency medical care on the festival grounds, staffed with around 100 volunteer medics and doctors per day.[4] They serve together with special detachments of Munich police, fire department and other municipal authorities in the service centre at the Behördenhof (authorities' court), a large building specially built for the Oktoberfest at the east side of the Theresienwiese, just behind the tents. There is also a place for lost & found children, a lost property office, a security point for women and other public services.[citation needed] Since the 1970s, local German gay organizations have organized "Gay Days" at Oktoberfest, which by the 21st century always began in the Bräurosl tent on the first Sunday.[5] To keep the Oktoberfest, and especially the beer tents, friendly for older people and families, the concept of the "quiet Oktoberfest" was developed in 2005. Until 6:00 pm, the tents only play quiet music, for example traditional wind music. Only after that will Schlager and pop music be played, which had led to more violence in earlier years.[6] The music played in the afternoon is limited to 85 decibels. With these rules, the organisers of the Oktoberfest were able to curb the over-the-top party mentality and preserve the traditional beer tent atmosphere. Since 2005 the last travelling Enterprise ride of Germany, called Mondlift, is back on the Oktoberfest. Starting in 2008, a new Bavarian law intended to ban smoking in all enclosed spaces that are open to the public, even at the Oktoberfest. Because of problems enforcing the anti-smoking law in the big tents there was an exception for the Oktoberfest 2008, although the sale of tobacco was not allowed. After heavy losses in the 2008 local elections with the smoke ban being a big issue in debates, the state's ruling party meanwhile implemented special exemptions to beer tents and small pubs. The change in regulation is aimed in particular at large tents at the Oktoberfest:[7] So, smoking in the tents is still legal, but the tents usually have non-smoking areas.[8] The sale of tobacco in the tents is now legal, but it is abandoned by agreement. However, in early 2010 a referendum held in Bavaria as a result of a popular initiative re-instituted the original, strict, smoking ban of 2008; thus, no beer will be sold to people caught smoking in the tents.[9] The blanket smoking ban will not take effect until 2011, but all tents will institute the smoking ban this year as to do the "dry run" to identify any unforeseeable issues. The common issue when the smoking ban is in effect is the nauseating stench of stale beer spilled on the floor, which the smoking masked.[10] 2010 marked the 200th anniversary of Oktoberfest. For the anniversary, there was a horse race in historical costumes on opening day. A so-called "Historische Wiesn" (historical Oktoberfest) took place, starting one day earlier than usual on the southern part of the festival grounds. A specially brewed beer (solely available at the tents of the historical Oktoberfest), horse races, and a museum tent gave visitors an impression of how the event felt a century ago. Most recently, in 2013, 6.4 million people visited Oktoberfest, and the festival served 6.7 million liters of beer.[11] 1980 Oktoberfest bomb blast[edit] Main article: Oktoberfest terror attack A pipe bomb was set off in a dustbin at the restrooms at the main entrance on September 26, 1980 at 22:19. The bomb consisted of an empty fire extinguisher filled with 1.39 kilograms of TNT and mortar shells. Thirteen people were killed, over 201 were injured, 68 seriously. This was the second deadliest terrorist attack in the history of Germany after the Munich Massacre. Governmental authorities propounded a summary of official inquires, purporting that a right-wing extremist Gundolf Köhler from Donaueschingen, a social outcast who was killed in the explosion, was the lone perpetrator. However, this account is strongly disputed by various groups. Only beer conforming to the Reinheitsgebot, and brewed within the city limits of Munich, can be served at the Munich Oktoberfest. Beers meeting these criteria are designated Oktoberfest Beer. [13] The breweries that can produce Oktoberfest Beer under the criteria are:[14] Augustiner-Bräu Hacker-Pschorr-Bräu Löwenbräu Paulaner Spatenbräu Staatliches Hofbräu-München Oktoberfest Beer is a registered trademark by the Club of Munich Brewers, which consists of the above six breweries. The Oktoberfest is known as the Largest Volksfest (People's Fair) in the World.[16] In 1999 there were six and a half million visitors[17] to the 42 hectare Theresienwiese. 72% of the people are from Bavaria.[18] 15% of visitors come from foreign countries like the surrounding EU-countries and other non-European countries including the United States, Canada, Australia and East Asia.[19] Besides the Oktoberfest, there are other public festivals that take place at the same location. In April/May it's the Munich Frühlingsfest (Spring Festival) and Tollwood-Festival in December with 650,000 visitors. After the Oktoberfest the next largest people fairs in Germany are the Cannstatter Volksfest in Stuttgart with about 4.5 million visitors each year, the Cranger Kirmes in Herne (Wanne-Eickel) (the largest fair in Northrhine-Westphalia) with 4.4 million visitors, the Rheinkirmes in Düsseldorf (called Largest Fair on the Rhine) and the Freimarkt in Bremen (the biggest fair in northern Germany) with over 4 million visitors per year each. Also noteworthy is the "Schützenfest Hannover", the world's largest marksmen's Fun Fair in Hanover with over 1 million visitors per year. Nearly 1,000 tons of rubbish result annually from the Oktoberfest. The mountains of rubbish created are hauled away and the ways cleanly washed down each morning. The cleaning is paid for in part by the city of Munich and in part by the sponsors.[citation needed] In 2004 the queues outside the toilets became so long that the police had to regulate the entrance. To keep traffic moving through the toilets, men headed for the toilets were directed to the urinals (giant enclosed grate) if they only needed to urinate. Consequently, the number of toilets was increased by 20% in 2005. Approximately 1,800 toilets and urinals are available at this time.[citation needed] Many Oktoberfest guests visit the quiet stalls in order to use their phones. For this reason there were plans in 2005 to install a Faraday cage around the toilets or to use Mobile phone jammers to prevent telephoning with a mobile telephone. Jamming devices are, however, illegal in Germany, and Faraday cages made of copper would have been too expensive, so these ambitious plans were dropped, and signs were placed instead, warning toilet users not to use cell phones in the stalls. There are currently fourteen large tents and twenty small tents at the Oktoberfest. The tents are non-permanent structures which are constructed for and only used during the festival. The beer (or wine) served in each is in the accompanying table. Hippodrom – Translates as "Horse race place". One of the larger tents, it's the first tent that many visitors see at the fest. As well as serving normal Wiesn beer, it has a Sekt (sparkling wine) bar and Maß of Weißbier. Considered one of the trendiest tents, and attracts the occasional celebrity. Traditionally in the evening the Oktoberfest band the Münchner Zwietracht (de) plays all the Oktoberfest classics. [21] Armbrustschützenzelt – Translates as the "Crossbowman's Tent", a competition that has been a part of the Oktoberfest since 1895. Hofbräu-Festzelt – The counterpart to the famous Hofbräuhaus, this tent is especially popular with Americans, Australians and New Zealanders. Hacker-Festzelt – One of the largest tents on the Wiesn, they have a rock band that plays during the evening break of the brass band. This tent is also known as "Himmel der Bayern" (Heaven of the Bavarians). Schottenhamel – Reckoned to be the most important tent at the Oktoberfest, mainly because it is where it starts. On the first Saturday of the event, no beer is allowed to be served until the mayor of Munich (currently Dieter Reiter) taps the first keg, at noon.[22] Only then can the other tents begin to serve beer. Very popular amongst younger people. A substantial part of the tent is guaranteed to traditional Studentenverbindungen (a particular form of student fraternities) and outfitted with their distinctive colors and coats of arms. Winzerer Fähndl – Translates as "Winzerers (bavarian surname) flag". This tent is noted for its huge tower, with a Maß of Paulaner beer sitting atop it. Schützen-Festhalle – This is a mid-sized tent. Situated under the Bavaria statue, the current tent was newly built in 2004. Käfers Wiesen Schänke – The smallest of the large tents at the Oktoberfest, it is frequented by celebrities, and is known for its especially good food. In contrast to the other tents (which must close by 11 pm), it is open until 12:30 am, but it can be very difficult to get in. Weinzelt – Translates as "wine tent". This tent offers a selection of more than 15 wines, as well as Weißbier. Löwenbräu-Festhalle – Above the entrance is a 4.50 meter (15 foot) lion who occasionally drinks from his beer. This is overshadowed by another tower where another drinking lion sits. Bräurosl (Hacker-Pschorr) – Translates as "brewers Rosemary". Named after the daughter of the original brewery owner (Pschorr), this tent has the usual brass band and a yodeler. Augustiner-Festhalle – Considered by many locals to be the best tent, due to the fact it sells the favourite local brew, Augustiner, from individually tapped wooden kegs rather than stainless steel vats used by the other tents. Ochsenbraterei – True to its name, this tent offers a great variety of ox dishes. Fischer-Vroni – Translates as "Fishers Veronika". Another of the smaller tents. Fisch is the German word for fish and this tent carries a huge selection in its menu. The main dish is Steckerlfisch, which is grilled outside of the tent. Small Tents[23] Able's Kalbs-Kuchl – Resembling a large Bavarian hut, the “calf kitchen” is traditional and inviting yet still has a lively party atmosphere which Oktoberfest fans crave. Ammer Hühner & Entenbraterei – In 1885, poultry dealer Joseph Ammer was allowed to construct his small booth at the Oktoberfest, creating the world’s first chicken roastery. Duck is offered as well. Bodo's Cafezelt – Don’t come to Bodo’s looking for beer. Instead you’ll find, exotic cocktails, Prosecco, champagne, coffee, donuts, ice cream, pastry, and strudel variations of all kinds. Café Kaiserschmarrn – Beautifully created by Rischart, the Café holds a daily commemoration of the occasion of the first Oktoberfest – the wedding of Ludwig I and Therese of Saxony. Café Mohrenkopf – Since 1950 Café Mohrenkopf has been baking cakes and pies fresh daily in the Oktoberfest tent. Feisingers Ka's und Weinstubn – Cheese and everything that complements the cheese is the specialty of the house in this unique tent. Glöckle Wirt – A visual treat, decorated with oil paintings, antique instruments and cooking utensils, the Glöckle Wirt offers its visitors an authentic Oktoberfest experience in a warm, welcoming atmosphere. Heimer Hendl- und Entenbraterei – Very popular among the locals, Heimer’s is a family-friendly tent where authentic Oktoberfest tradition is timeless. Heinz Wurst- Und Hühnerbraterei – Since 1906, the Heinz Sausage and Chicken Grill has been a fixture on the Wiesn, specializing in authentic Oktoberfest tradition. Hochreiters Haxnbraterei – Quality is paramount in Hochreiter’s tent, where their BBQ experts prepare mouth-watering pork knuckles in the only haxenbraterei on the Wiesn. Münchner Knödelei – The dumpling is an icon of Bavarian cuisine, and “preserving and spreading the dumpling culture” is the motto of this smaller tent. Poschners Hühner- Und Entenbraterei – Poschner’s famous roasted chicken and duck has been a tradition on the Wiesn for four generations. Schiebl's Kaffeehaferl – With seating for about 100, Schiebl’s comfy coffeehouse tent is a friendly meeting place for the whole family. - Haferl is the bavarian term for a (coffee, tea...) mug or pot. Wiesn Guglhupf Café-Dreh-Bar – A Guglhupf is a German cake, like an English bundt cake, and this slowly moving carousel bar is easy to spot because it’s shaped like one. Wildmoser Hühnerbraterei – Owned by family Wildmoser since 1981, this small tent has been adopted and popularized by the Munich locals. Wildstuben – The newest tent at Oktoberfest, you’ll appreciate the intricate details of the woodwork and the homey hunting lodge ambiance. Wirtshaus im Schichtl – The mayor Christian Ude once wrote: "An Oktoberfest without Schichtl is inconceivable. The Schichtl is as essential as the beer, the radish and the chicken." Zum Stiftl – Zum Stiftl is famous for its traditional duck and roasted chicken dishes, cozy atmosphere, and daily entertainment. Zur Bratwurst – Debuting in 2007, the Hochreiter family have brought back the former Bratwurstglöckl in the spirit of good old Munich Oktoberfest.

A short excerpt from an article entitled 'Royal Pains - What's in a Dame?' in the Nov. 2015 Town and Country magazine. Pages 210-211. Britain's honors system, founded on more rugged battlefields, has been around since the a Middle Ages. Norman Kings bestowed knighthoods, orders of chivalry, and heraldry titles as part of England's feudal government, replacing the Anglo Saxon tradition of rewarding faithful service and gallantry in battle with grants of land, money, or weapons. Until the early 19th. century British chivalric orders were dispensed only to members of the aristocracy (heraldry dukes, earls, marquise's, and barons) and distinguished military figures. These days Britain's system consists of six main orders of chivalry, each with its own ranks (as many as seven) and two orders of merit. They all have the statutes that dictate the size and colors of the corresponding insignia (badges, stars, ribbons, and sashes) ; how, when, and where they are worn; and post-nominal abbreviations. One of the cardinal rules of the current system is that British titles cannot be bought. Titles were blatantly sold by William the Conquerer during the 11th. century, and again in 1917, when the going rate for a knighthood was 10,000 £ and a hereditary baronetcy could be purchased for a whopping 40,000 £. Today, in order of seniority and prestige, the chivalric orders are: the Most Noble Order of the Garter (relating to England and Wales); the Most Ancient and Most Noble Order of the Thistle (for Scotland); the Most Honourable Order of the Bath (for Senior Civil Servants and military officers); the Most Distinguished Order of Saint Michael and Saint George (diplomats and colonial servants); the Royal Victorian Order (for services to the crown); the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (for miscellaneous military and civil services). For snob value no honor outranks the Most Noble of the Garter, Britain's oldest order of chivalry. Founder in 1344, it is awarded at the sovereign's pleasure, as a personal gift, and is limited to the monarch, the Prince of Wales, and 24 members, known as Knights Companions or Ladies Companions. To some ears "Garter" is a comical name for such a coveted prize. According to the legend it was begun after "a trivial mishap" at a court ball when King Edward III was dancing with his alleged mistress Joan, Countess of Salisbury. When her garter slithered to her ankle, nearby courtiers sniggered at her humiliation. The king, in an act of chivalry, stooped to pick up the garter and affix it to his own knee, declaring in French, "Honi soit qui mal y pense. Tel qui s'en rit aujourd'hui, s'honorerea de la porter," or "Shame on him who thinks evil of it. Those who laugh at it today will be proud to wear it in the future." The Garter has for centuries been awarded to distinguished statesmen and military figures like the dashing Earl of Moubtbatten, who was appointed to the order in 1946. By the mid-1950's, however, some knights complained that standards were slipping. "The trouble with the Order of the Garter these days," the 7th. Duke of Wellington remarked, "is that it is full of field marshals and people who do their own washing-up." To me, it was an excellent article. Unfortunately I could not locate the author's name. Garter Day: www.flickr.com/photos/britishmonarchy/albums/721576447897... Honi Soit Qui Mal Y Pense - Empire. "Shame on him who thinks ill of it". www.flickr.com/photos/21728045@N08/9851675205/in/photolis... A possible seal for sealing envelopes with sealing wax. I didn't look at it closely. Who knows, it may be a broken spoon fixed to a base. I'll have to return. I returned and it looks like a sealing stamp. K.G. - The Most Noble Order of the Garter - en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_the_Garter The Most Noble Order of the Garter is an English order of chivalry with a history stretching back to medieval times; today it is the world's oldest national order of knighthood in continuous existence and the pinnacle of the British honours system. Its membership is extremely limited, consisting of the Sovereign and not more than twenty-five full members, or Companions. Male members are known as Knights Companions, whilst female members are known as Ladies Companions (not Dames, as in most other British chivalric orders). The Order can also include certain extra members (members of the British Royal Family and foreign monarchs), known as "Supernumerary" Knights and Ladies. The Sovereign alone grants membership of the Order; the Prime Minister does not tender binding advice as to appointments, as he or she does for most other orders. As the name suggests, the Order's primary emblem is a garter bearing the motto "Honi soit qui mal y pense" (which means "Shame on him who thinks ill of it") in gold letters. The Garter is an actual accessory worn by the members of the Order during ceremonial occasions; it is also depicted on several insignia. Most British orders of chivalry cover the entire kingdom, but the three most exalted ones each pertain to one constituent nation only. The Order of the Garter, which pertains to England, is most senior in both age and precedence; its equivalent in Scotland is The Most Ancient and Most Noble Order of the Thistle. Whilst the Order of the Thistle was certainly in existence by the sixteenth century and possibly has medieval origins (or even, according to more fanciful legends, dates to the eighth century), the foundation of the institution in its modern form dates only to 1687. In 1783 an Irish equivalent, The Most Illustrious Order of St Patrick, was founded, but since the independence of the greater part of Ireland the Order has fallen dormant (its last surviving knight died in 1974). History The Order was founded circa 1348 by Edward III as "a society, fellowship and college of knights." Various more precise dates ranging from 1344 to 1351 have been proposed; the wardrobe account of Edward III first shows Garter habits issued in the autumn of 1348. At any rate, the Order was most probably not constituted before 1346; the original statutes required that each member admitted to the Order already be a knight (what would today be called a knight bachelor), and several initial members of the Order were first knighted in that year. Various legends have been set forth to explain the origin of the Order. The most popular one involves the "Countess of Salisbury" (it may refer to Joan of Kent, the King's future daughter-in-law, or to her then mother-in-law, whom Edward is known to have admired). Whilst she was dancing with the King at Eltham Palace, her garter is said to have slipped from her leg to the floor. When the surrounding courtiers sniggered, the King picked it up and tied it to his own leg, exclaiming "Honi soit qui mal y pense." (The French may be loosely translated as "Shame on him who thinks ill of it"; it has become the motto of the Order.) According to another myth, Richard I, whilst fighting in the Crusades, was inspired by St George to tie garters around the legs of his knights; Edward III supposedly recalled the event, which led to victory, when he founded the Order. Composition Sovereign and Knights Since its foundation, the Order of the Garter has included the Sovereign and Knights Companions. The Sovereign of the United Kingdom serves as Sovereign of the Order. Queen Elizabeth II in Garter Robes The Prince of Wales is explicitly mentioned in the Order's statutes and is by convention created a Knight Companion; aside from him, there may be up to twenty-four other Knights Companions. In the early days of the Order, women (who could not be knighted), were sometimes associated with the Order under the name "Ladies of the Garter," but they were not full companions. Henry VII, however, ended the practice, creating no more Ladies of the Garter after his mother Margaret Beaufort, Countess of Derby (appointed in 1488). Thereafter, the Order was exclusively male (except, of course, for the occasional female Sovereign) until 1901, when Edward VII created Queen Alexandra (his wife) a Lady of the Garter. Throughout the 20th century women continued to be admitted to the Order, but, except for foreign female monarchs, they were not full members of the Order until 1987, when it became possible, under a statute of Elizabeth II, to appoint "Ladies Companions." In addition to the regular Knights and Ladies Companions, the Sovereign can also appoint "Supernumerary Knights". This concept was introduced in 1786 by George III so that his many sons would not count towards the limit of twenty-five companions set by the statutes; in 1805, he extended the category so that any descendant of George II could be created a Supernumerary Knight. Since 1831, the exception applies to all descendents of George I. Such companions, when appointed, are sometimes known as "Royal Knights." From time to time, foreign monarchs have also been admitted to the Order; and for two centuries they also have not counted against the limit of twenty-five companions, being (like the Royal Knights aforementioned), supernumerary. Formerly, each such extra creation required the enactment of a special statute; this was first done in 1813, when Alexander I, Emperor of Russia was admitted to the Order. Many European monarchs are in fact descended from George I and can be appointed supernumerarily as such, but a statute of 1954 authorizes the regular admission of foreign Knights and Ladies without further special statutes irrespective of descent. The appellation "Stranger Knights," which dates to the middle ages, is sometimes applied to foreign monarchs in the Order of the Garter. Generally, only foreign monarchs are made Stranger Knights or Ladies; when The Rt Hon. Sir Ninian Stephen (an Australian citizen) and Sir Edmund Hillary (from New Zealand) joined the Order, they did so as Knights Companions in the normal fashion. The British Sovereign is the head of state of both these countries, which were formerly British colonies. Formerly, whenever vacancies arose, the Knights would conduct an "election," wherein each Knight voted for nine candidates (of which three had to be of the rank of Earl or above, three of the rank of Baron or above, and three of the rank of Knight or above). The Sovereign would then choose as many individuals as were necessary to fill the vacancies; he or she was not bound to choose the receivers of the greatest number of votes. Victoria dispensed with the procedure in 1862; thereafter, all appointments were made solely by the Sovereign. From the eighteenth century onwards, the Sovereign made his or her choices upon the advice of the Government. George VI felt that the Orders of the Garter and the Thistle had become too linked with political patronage; in 1946, with the agreement of the Prime Minister (Clement Attlee) and the Leader of the Opposition (Winston Churchill), he returned these two orders to the personal gift of the Sovereign. Knights of the Garter could also be degraded by the Sovereign, who normally took such an action in response to serious crimes such as treason. The last degradation was that of James Butler, 2nd Duke of Ormonde, who had participated in the Jacobite Rebellion and had been convicted upon impeachment, in 1716. During the First World War, Knights who were monarchs of enemy nations were removed by the "annulment" of their creations; Knights Companions who fought against the United Kingdom were "struck off" the Rolls. All such annulments were made in 1915. The Knights who were removed were: Francis Joseph, Emperor of Austria William II, Emperor of Germany Ernst August, 3rd Duke of Cumberland Prince Albert William Henry of Prussia Ernest, Grand Duke of Hesse and the Rhine William, Crown Prince of Germany William II, King of Württemberg The only Knight Companion to be struck off the Rolls was Prince Charles Edward, 2nd Duke of Albany. Poor Knights At the original establishment of the Order, twenty-six "Poor Knights" were appointed and attached to the Order and its chapel at St. George's Chapel, Windsor. The number was not always maintained; by the seventeenth century, there were just thirteen Poor Knights. At his restoration, Charles II increased the number to eighteen. After they objected to being termed "poor", William IV renamed them the Military Knights of Windsor. Poor Knights were originally impoverished military veterans. They were required to pray daily for the Sovereign and Knights Companions; in return, they received a salary, and were lodged in Windsor Castle. Today the Military Knights, who are no longer necessarily poor, but are still military pensioners, participate in the Order's processions, escorting the Knights and Ladies of the Garter, and in the daily services in St George's Chapel. They are not actually members of the Order itself, nor are they necessarily actual knights: indeed few if any have been knights. Officers The Order of the Garter has six officers: the Prelate the Chancellor the Registrar the King of Arms the Usher the Secretary The offices of Prelate, Registrar and Usher were created upon the Order's foundation; the offices of King of Arms and Chancellor were created during the fifteenth century, and that of Secretary during the twentieth. The office of Prelate is held by the Bishop of Winchester, traditionally one of the senior bishops of the Church of England. The office of Chancellor was formerly held by the Bishop of the diocese within which Windsor fell— at one point, the Bishop of Salisbury, but after boundary changes the Bishop of Oxford. Later, the field was widened so that, for example, the Stuart courtier Sir James Palmer served as Chancellor from 1645 although he was neither a prelate nor even a companion (although he was a Knight Bachelor). Today, however, one of the companions serves as Chancellor. The Dean of Windsor is, ex officio, the Registrar. Garter King of Arms is the head of the College of Arms (England's heraldic authority) and thus the "principal" herald for all England (along with Wales and Northern Ireland). As his title suggests, he also has specific duties as the heraldic officer of the Order of the Garter, attending to the companions' crests and coats of arms, which are exhibited in the Order's chapel (see below). The modern (1904) office of Secretary has also been filled by a professional herald. The Order's Usher is the Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod. He is also the Serjeant-at-Arms of the House of Lords (although his functions there are more often performed by his deputy, the Yeoman Usher). The title of his office comes from his staff of office, the Black Rod. Vestments and accoutrements Sovereign and Knights For the Order's great occasions, such as its annual service each June in Windsor Castle, as well for coronations, the Companions wear an elaborate costume: Today Knights of the Garter wear their distinctive habits over ordinary suits or military uniforms. For the coronation of George IV in 1821, this version of Jacobean dress was devised. Most importantly (although hardly visible), the Garter is a buckled velvet strap worn around the left calf by men and on the left arm by women. Originally light blue, today the Garter is dark blue. Those presented to Stranger Knights were once set with several jewels. The Garter bears the Order's motto in gold majuscules. The mantle is a blue velvet robe. Knights and Ladies Companions have worn mantles, or coats, since the reign of Henry VII. Once made of wool, they had come to be made of velvet by the sixteenth century. The mantle was originally purple, but varied during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries between celestial blue, pale blue, royal blue, dark blue, violet and ultramarine. Today, mantles are dark blue in colour, and are lined with white taffeta. The mantles of the Sovereign and members of the Royal Family end in trains. Sewn onto the left shoulder of the mantle is a shield bearing St George's cross, encircled by a Garter; the Sovereign's mantle is slightly different, showing instead a representation of the star of the Order (see below). Attached to the mantle over the right shoulder are a crimson velvet hood and surcoat, which have lost all function over time and appear to the modern observer simply as a splash of colour. Today the mantle, which includes two large gold tassels, is worn over a regular suit or military uniform. The hat is of black velvet, and bears a plume of white ostrich and black heron feathers. Like the mantle, the collar was introduced during Henry VII's reign. Made of pure gold, it weighs 30 troy ounces (0.93 kilogram). The collar is composed of gold knots alternating with enamelled medallions showing a rose encircled by the blue garter. During Henry VII's reign, each garter surrounded two roses—one red and one white—but he later changed the design, such that each garter now encircles just one red rose. The collar is worn around the neck, over the mantle. The George, a three-dimensional figurine of St George on horseback slaying a dragon, colourfully enamelled, is worn suspended from the collar. Queen Victoria wearing the Garter around her arm. Aside from these special occasions, however, much simpler insignia are used whenever a member of the Order attends an event at which decorations are worn. The star, introduced by Charles I, is an eight-pointed silver badge; in its centre is an enamel depiction of the cross of St George, surrounded by the Garter. (Each of the eight points is depicted as a cluster of rays, with the four points of the cardinal directions longer than the intermediate ones.) It is worn pinned to the left breast. Formerly, the stars given to foreign monarchs were often inlaid with jewels. (Since the Order of the Garter is the UK's senior order, a member will wear its star above that of other orders to which he or she belongs; up to four orders' stars may be worn.) The broad riband, introduced by Charles II, is a four inch wide sash, worn from the left shoulder to the right hip. (Depending on the other clothing worn, it either passes over the left shoulder, or is pinned beneath it.) The riband's colour has varied over the years; it was originally light blue, but was a dark shade under the Hanoverian monarchs. In 1950, the colour was fixed as "kingfisher blue". (Only one riband is worn at a time, even if a Knight or Lady belongs to several orders.) The badge (sometimes known as the Lesser George) hangs from the riband at the right hip, suspended from a small Insignia of the Order of the Garter gold link (formerly, before Charles II introduced the broad riband, it was around the neck). Like the George, it shows St George slaying the dragon, but it is flatter and monochromatically gold. In the fifteenth century, the Lesser George was usually worn attached to a ribbon around the neck. As this was not convenient when riding a horse, the custom of wearing it under the right arm developed. However, on certain "collar days" designated by the Sovereign, members attending formal events may wear the Order's collar over their military uniform or eveningwear. The collar is fastened to the shoulders with silk ribbons. They will then substitute the broad riband of another order to which they belong (if any), since the Order of the Garter is represented by the collar. Upon the death of a Knight or Lady, the insignia must be returned to the Central Chancery of the Orders of Knighthood. The badge and star are returned personally to the Sovereign by the nearest male relative of the deceased. Poor Knights Poor Knights originally wore red mantles, each of which bore the cross of St George, but did not depict the Garter. Elizabeth I replaced the mantles with blue and purple gowns, but Charles I returned to the old red mantles. When the Poor Knights were renamed Military Knights, the mantles were abandoned. Instead, the Military Knights of Windsor now wear the old military uniform of an "army officer on the unattached list": black trousers, a scarlet coat, a cocked hat with a plume, and a sword on a white sash. Officers The officers of the Order also have ceremonial vestments and other accoutrements that they wear and carry for the Order's annual service. The Prelate's and Chancellor's mantles are blue, like that of the knights (but since the Chancellor is now a member of the Order, he simply wears a knight's mantle), those of other officers crimson; all are embroidered with a shield bearing the Cross of St George. Garter King of Arms wears his tabard. Assigned to each officer of the Order is a distinctive badge that he wears on a chain around his neck; each is surrounded by a representation of the garter. The Prelate's badge depicts St George slaying a dragon; the Garter within which it is depicted is surmounted by a bishop's mitre. The Chancellor's badge is a rose encircled by the Garter. The badge of Garter Principal King of Arms depicts the royal arms impaled (side-by-side) with the cross of St George. The Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod's badge depicts a knot within the Garter. The Registrar has a badge of a crown above two crossed quills, the Secretary two crossed quills in front of a rose. The Chancellor of the Order bears a purse, embroidered with the royal arms, containing the Seal of the Order. The Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod carries his staff of office, the Black Rod. At the Order's great occasions, Garter Principal King of Arms bears his baton of office as a king of arms; he does not usually wear his crown. Chapel The Chapel of the Order is St. George's Chapel, Windsor, located in the Lower Ward of Windsor Castle. It was founded for At the order's annual gathering and service, the sovereign and companions — such as George VI and Queen Elizabeth, shown here — process through Windsor Castle to St. George's chapel. the Order in 1475. The order once held frequent services at the Chapel, but they became rare in the eighteenth century. Discontinued after 1805, the ceremony was revived by George VI in 1948 and it has become an annual event. On a certain day each June, the members of the Order (wearing their ceremonial vestments and insignia) meet in the state apartments in the Upper Ward of Windsor Castle, then (preceded by the Military Knights) process on foot down through the castle to St George's Chapel for the service. If there are any new knights, they are installed on this occasion. After the service, the members of the Order return to the Upper Ward by carriage. Each member of the Order, including the Sovereign, is allotted a stall in the quire of the chapel, above which his or her heraldic devices are displayed. Perched on the pinnacle of a knight's stall is his helm, decorated with a mantling and topped by his crest. Under English heraldic law, women other than monarchs do not bear helms or crests; instead, the coronet appropriate to the Lady's rank is used (see coronet). The crests of the Sovereign and Stranger Knights who are monarchs sit atop their crowns, which are themselves perched on their helms. Below each helm, a sword is displayed. Above the crest or coronet, the knight's or lady's heraldic banner is hung, emblazoned with his or her coat of arms. At a considerably smaller scale, to the back of the stall is affixed a piece of brass (a "stall plate") displaying its occupant's name, arms and date of admission into the Order. Upon the death of a Knight, the banner, helm, mantling, crest (or coronet or crown) and sword are taken down. No other newly admitted Knight may be assigned the stall until (after the funeral of the late Knight or Lady) a ceremony marking his or her death is observed at the chapel, during which Military Knights of Windsor carry the banner of the deceased Knight and offer it to the Dean of Windsor, who places it upon the altar. The stall plates, however, are not removed; rather, they remain permanently affixed somewhere about the stall, so the stalls of the chapel are festooned with a colourful record of the Order's Knights (and now Ladies) throughout history. Precedence and privileges Knights and Ladies of the Garter are assigned positions in the order of precedence, coming before all others of knightly rank, and above baronets. (See order of precedence in England and Wales for the exact positions.) Wives, sons, daughters and The arms of Knights and Ladies (as well as the Sovereign) may be encircled by the Garter. daughters-in-law of Knights of the Garter also feature on the order of precedence; relatives of Ladies of the Garter, however, are not assigned any special precedence. (Generally, individuals can derive precedence from their fathers or husbands, but not from their mothers or wives.) The Chancellor of the Order is also assigned precedence, but this is purely academic since today the Chancellor is always also a Knight Companion, with a higher position by that virtue. (In fact, it is unclear whether the Chancellor's tabled precedence has ever come into effect, since under the old system the office was filled by a diocesan bishop of the Church of England, who again had higher precedence by virtue of that office than any that the Chancellorship could bestow on him.) Knights Companions prefix "Sir," and Ladies Companions prefix "Lady," to their forenames. Wives of Knights Companions may prefix "Lady" to their surnames, but no equivalent privilege exists for husbands of Ladies Companions. Such forms are not used by peers and princes, except when the names of the former are written out in their fullest forms. Knights and Ladies use the post-nominal letters "KG" and "LG," respectively. When an individual is entitled to use multiple post-nominal letters, KG or LG appears before all others, except "Bt" (Baronet), "VC" (Victoria Cross) and "GC" (George Cross). The Sovereign, Knights and Ladies Companions and Supernumerary Knights and Ladies may encircle their arms with a representation of the Garter; and since it is Britain's highest order of knighthood, the Garter will tend to be displayed in preference to the insignia of any other order, unless there is special reason to highlight a junior one. (They may further encircle the Garter with a depiction of Order's collar, but this very elaborate version is seldom seen.) Stranger Knights, of course, do not embellish the arms they use at home with foreign decorations such as the Garter; likewise, while the UK Royal Arms as used in England are encircled by the Garter, in Scotland they are surrounded by the circlet of the Order of the Thistle instead. (In Wales and Northern Ireland, the English pattern is followed.) Knights and Ladies are also entitled to receive heraldic supporters. These are relatively rare among private individuals in the UK. While some families claim supporters by ancient use and others have been granted them as a special reward, only peers, Knights and Ladies of the Garter and Thistle, and Knights and Dames Grand Cross and Knights Grand Commanders of certain junior orders are entitled to claim an automatic grant of supporters (upon payment of the appropriate fees to the College of Arms). Current members and officers Sovereign: HM The Queen Knights and Ladies Companions: HRH The Prince of Wales KG KT GCB OM AK QSO PC ADC (1958) His Grace The Duke of Grafton KG DL (1976) The Rt Hon. The Lord Richardson of Duntisbourne KG MBE TD PC DL (1983) The Rt Hon. The Lord Carrington KG GCMG CH MC PC JP DL (1985) His Grace The Duke of Wellington KG LVO OBE MC DL (1990) Field Marshal The Rt Hon. The Lord Bramall KG GCB OBE MC JP (1990) The Rt Hon. The Viscount Ridley KG GCVO TD (1992) The Rt Hon. The Lord Sainsbury of Preston Candover KG (1992) The Rt Hon. The Lord Ashburton KG KCVO DL (1994) The Rt Hon. The Lord Kingsdown KG PC (1994) The Rt Hon. Sir Ninian Stephen KG AK GCMG GCVO KBE (1994) The Rt Hon. The Baroness Thatcher LG OM PC FRS (1995) Sir Edmund Hillary KG ONZ KBE (1995) Sir Timothy Colman KG JP (1996) His Grace The Duke of Abercorn Bt KG (1999) Sir William Gladstone of Fasque and Balfour Bt KG DL (1999) Field Marshal The Rt Hon. The Lord Inge KG GCB DL (2001) Sir Antony Arthur Acland KG GCMG GCVO (2001) His Grace The Duke of Westminster KG OBE TD DL (2003) The Rt Hon. The Lord Butler of Brockwell KG GCB CVO PC (2003) The Rt Hon. The Lord Morris of Aberavon KG PC QC (2003) The Rt Hon. Sir John Major KG CH (2005) The Rt Hon. The Lord Bingham of Cornhill KG PC (2005) The Rt Hon. The Lady Soames LG DBE (2005) (one vacancy following the death of The Rt Hon. Sir Edward Heath KG MBE) Royal Knights and Ladies (supernumerary knights and ladies descended from George I): HRH The Duke of Edinburgh KG KT OM GBE AC QSO PC (1947) HRH The Duke of Kent KG GCMG GCVO (1985) HRH The Princess Royal LG LT GCVO QSO (1994) HRH The Duke of Gloucester KG GCVO (1997) HRH Princess Alexandra, The Honourable Lady Ogilvy LG GCVO (2003) Stranger Knights and Ladies: HRH Grand Duke Jean sometime Grand Duke of Luxembourg (1972) HM The Queen of Denmark (1979) HM The King of Sweden (1983) HM The King of Spain (1988) HM The Queen of the Netherlands (1989) HIM The Emperor of Japan (1998) HM The King of Norway (2001) Officers: Prelate: The Rt Revd Michael Scott-Joynt (Lord Bishop of Winchester) Chancellor: The Rt Hon. The Lord Carrington KG GCMG CH MC PC DL Registrar: The Rt Revd David Conner (Dean of St George's Chapel, Windsor) King of Arms: Peter Llewellyn Gwynn-Jones Esq. CVO (Garter Principal King of Arms) Secretary: Patric Dickinson Esq. CVO (Richmond Herald) Usher: Lt-Gen. Sir Michael Willcocks KCB (Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod). Try this beam of Masonic light: www.flickr.com/photos/21728045@N08/2128203765/

Ein Regenschirm (selten, zumeist regional auch noch frz. Parapluie, altösterreichisch Paraplui genannt, eingedeutsch Paraplü) ist ein alltäglicher Gebrauchsgegenstand; er soll vor Wettereinflüssen schützen und besteht aus einer Plane aus Stoff oder heute meist Nylon oder anderen Polyamiden, die auf Kiele gespannt ist und traditionell an einem langen lotrecht aufgesetzten Stiel in die Höhe gehalten wird. Zum Festhalten besitzt der normale Regenschirm einen Griff, meist in Form eines gekrümmten Spazierstock-Griffes oder eines Knaufs. So schützt der (tragbare) Regenschirm vor Niederschlägen, birgt aber bei stärkerem Wind stets die Gefahr des Überstülpens bzw. Umschlagens. Entworfen und angefertigt werden Regenschirme traditionell von Schirmmachern, heute beherrscht jedoch die industrielle (Billig-)Produktion den Markt. Die erste schriftliche Erwähnung eines Regenschirms stammt aus dem Jahr 800. Damals schickte der Abt Alcuin von Tours dem Bischof Arno von Salzburg einen solchen mit den Worten „Ich sende dir ein Schutzdach, damit es von deinem verehrungswürdigen Haupte den Regen abhalte.“[1] Die frühe Geschichte des Regenschirms ist eigentlich die des Sonnenschirms: Erst im späten 17. Jahrhundert finden sich Hinweise darauf, dass Schirme als Regenschutz verwendet wurden. Unterschiede bestanden nur in der wasserdichten Ausführung des Daches. Am Beginn des 19. Jahrhunderts waren auch Regenschirme in Mode, die mit Hilfe eines metallenen Erdungsbandes als Blitzschutz[2] eingesetzt werden sollten, deren Schutzversprechen aber recht zweifelhafter Natur waren. In China wurden Regenschirme früher aus Bambusgestänge und Ölpapier gefertigt. Heute werden Schirme aus imprägnierter Baumwolle, Kunststoff oder Nylon mit ausziehbarem Stahlgestänge hergestellt. Der zusammenfaltbare Regenschirm, der bei Nichtverwendung möglichst wenig Platz einnimmt, wurde – erste Versuche in diese Richtung gab es bereits im späten 17. Jahrhundert – 1928 von dem Bergassessor a. D. Hans Haupt[3] aus Breslau erfunden. Dieses Modell ließ er sich 1930 patentieren und nannte es Knirps. Die Serienherstellung der später bekanntesten deutschen Schirmmarke übernahm ab 1932 Fritz Bremshey, allerdings wurde die Produktion in Deutschland 1999 eingestellt. Einer der bedeutendsten Schirmhersteller in der Bundesrepublik ist die Heinrich Zangenberg GmbH & Co. KG in Wallenhorst, die 1876 in Osnabrück gegründet wurde. 1962 belief sich die Jahresproduktion des Schirmherstellers auf 1,1 Millionen Stück. 450 Mitarbeiter stellten die Schirme in Fließbandfertigung für die Firma Zangenberg her. Nach jahrelanger Verkaufsstagnation besann man sich neu auf Hightech, Design und Leichtbaumaterialien und hatte das Erfolgsrezept für steigende Absatzzahlen gefunden.[4] 2007 gingen in Deutschland 25 Millionen Regenschirme über die Ladentheke, nur 50.000 Stück davon kamen aus einheimischer Produktion,[5] produziert wird heute hauptsächlich in Fernost. China liefert etwa 98 % aller angebotenen Schirme. Regenschirme lassen sich nach folgenden Gesichtspunkten unterscheiden: Anzahl der Streben (auch Stangen, Speichen oder Segmente genannt): Üblich sind 8 Segmente, aber auch 6, 7, 10, 12 oder 16 Segmente sind zu finden. Der Schirm wird mit wachsender Segmentzahl immer „runder“ und durch den Einbau weiterer Streben schwerer und stabiler Stock und Stangen starr oder flexibel: Langschirm (auch „Long“): Schirm, dessen Stangen nicht klappbar sind und dessen Stock nicht teleskopierbar ist Taschenschirm: kleiner faltbarer und teleskopierbarer Schirm Mini-Taschenschirm: kleiner Taschenschirm, dessen Stock mehrfach teleskopierbar ist und dessen Stangen mehrfach geklappt bzw. zusammengeschoben werden können Piccolo: Mini-Taschenschirm, der weniger als 20 cm im zusammengelegten Zustand misst Anwendungszweck: Golfschirm: groß, auch sonnenfest, gerader Griff – kann in den Rasen gerammt werden und ist auch im Golfbag gegen Beschädigung der Bespannung geschützt Anglerschirm: dauerregenfest, sehr groß, kann ebenfalls in aufgespanntem Zustand in den Erdboden gesteckt werden Trekkingschirm: leicht, Sonderfunktionen, stabil[6] Kofferschirm: Spitze und Griff lassen sich abschrauben Selbstverteidigungsschirm: stabil gearbeitet, um ihn als Schlag- oder Hebelwaffe verwenden zu können Brautschirm Künstlerschirm Motivschirm Stützschirm (als Handstockersatz) Portier- oder Gastschirm: um gegebenenfalls jemanden vom oder zum Auto zu geleiten, groß, gedeckte Farbe Schutzschirm (Kombinationsschirm gegen Sonne und Regen, besonders in der Freiluftgastronomie, besonders groß) asymmetrische Dachform (kann neben dem zu schützenden Tisch stehen) Form und Größe neben der normalen Ausführung: Pagodenschirm Glockenschirm Kinderschirm (Durchmesser verkleinert, besondere Sicherheitsvorkehrungen) Automatikschirme können mit einer Hand geöffnet werden. Als Öffnungshilfe dient eine Schraubendruckfeder – im zusammengeklappten Zustand wird die Schirmdachmechanik mit einem Haken gehalten, der durch einen Tastendruck gelöst wird. Automatikschirme gibt es als Lang- und Taschenschirm. Vollautomatikschirme lassen sich auf Knopfdruck öffnen und schließen. Die Spannfedern werden beim mechanischen Zusammenschieben erneut gespannt. Schwachstellen Schirme unterliegen bei häufigem Gebrauch einem erhöhten Verschleiß. Reparaturen müssen an folgenden Punkten besonders häufig vorgenommen werden: Speichen erneuern ca. 30 % Schieber erneuern ca 25 % Nieten ersetzen ca. 20 % (Hohlnieten gegen Massivnieten, für besseren Halt) Kugelspitzen erneuern und sonstige Näharbeiten ca. 15 % sonstige Kleinreparaturen, Top erneuern, Mittelfeder wechseln, Gabelhäkchen ersetzen usw. ca. 10 % An umbrella or parasol is a canopy designed to protect against rain or sunlight. The word parasol usually refers to an item designed to protect from the sun; umbrella refers to a device more suited to protect from rain. Often the difference is the material; some parasols are not waterproof. Umbrellas and parasols are primarily hand-held portable devices designed to shield an individual from sun or rain, and are sized for personal use. Today, larger parasols are often used as fixed or semi-fixed devices, used with patio tables or other outdoor furniture, or as points of shade on a sunny beach. The collapsible (or folding) umbrella may have first been used in China [2][3] and had sliding levers similar to those in use today.[4] Parasols are sometimes called sunshades. An umbrella may also be called a brolly (UK slang), parapluie (nineteenth century, French origin), rainshade, gamp (British, informal, dated), bumbershoot (American slang), or umbrolly (UK slang), The word "parasol" (Spanish or French) is a combination of para, meaning to stop or to shield, and sol, meaning sun. "Parapluie" (French) similarly consists of para combined with pluie, which means rain (which in turn derives from pluvia, the Latin word for rain). Hence, a parasol shields from sunlight while a parapluie shields from rain. (Parachute means shield from falls.) The word "umbrella" evolved from the Latin umbella (an umbel is a flat-topped rounded flower) or umbra, meaning shaded or shadow (the Latin word, in turn, derives from the Ancient Greek ómbros [όμβρος]). The suffix -elle is used in French to denote "little", thus an umbrelle (umbrella) is a "little shadow". In Britain, umbrellas are sometimes referred to as "gamps" after the character Mrs. Gamp in the Charles Dickens novel Martin Chuzzlewit, although this usage is now obscure.[5] Mrs. Gamp's character was well known for carrying an umbrella.[6] Brolly is a slang word for umbrella, used often in Britain, Ireland, New Zealand, Australia, South Africa, and Kenya. Bumbershoot is a fanciful Americanism from the late 19th century.[7] Middle East In the sculptures at Nineveh the parasol appears frequently.[8] Austen Henry Layard gives a picture of a bas-relief representing a king in his chariot, with an attendant holding a parasol over his head.[8] It has a curtain hanging down behind, but is otherwise exactly like those in use today.[8] It is reserved exclusively for the monarch (who was bald), and is never carried over any other person.[8] In Persia the parasol is repeatedly found in the carved work of Persepolis, and Sir John Malcolm has an article on the subject in his 1815 "History of Persia."[8] In some sculptures, the figure of a king appears attended by a servant, who carries over his head an umbrella, with stretchers and runner complete.[8] In other sculptures on the rock at Taghe-Bostan, supposed to be not less than twelve centuries old, a deer-hunt is represented, at which a king looks on, seated on a horse, and having an umbrella borne over his head by an attendant. In all written records, the oldest reference to a collapsible umbrella dates to the year 21 A.D., when Wang Mang (r. 9–23) had one designed for a ceremonial four-wheeled carriage.[9] The 2nd century commentator Fu Qian added that this collapsible umbrella of Wang Mang's carriage had bendable joints which enabled them to be extended or retracted.[10] A 1st century collapsible umbrella has since been recovered from the tomb of Wang Guang at Lelang Commandery in the Korean Peninsula, illustrated in a work by Harada and Komai.[11] However, the Chinese collapsible umbrella is perhaps a concept that is yet centuries older than Wang's tomb. Zhou Dynasty bronze castings of complex bronze socketed hinges with locking slides and bolts—which could have been used for parasols and umbrellas—were found in an archeological site of Luoyang, dated to the 6th century BC.[11] An even older source on the umbrella is perhaps the ancient book of Chinese ceremonies, called Zhou Li (The Rites of Zhou), dating 2400 years ago, which directs that upon the imperial cars the dais should be placed. The figure of this dais contained in Zhou-Li, and the description of it given in the explanatory commentary of Lin-hi-ye, both identify it with an umbrella. The latter describes the dais to be composed of 28 arcs, which are equivalent to the ribs of the modern instrument, and the staff supporting the covering to consist of two parts, the upper being a rod 3/18 of a Chinese foot in circumference, and the lower a tube 6/10 in circumference, into which the upper half is capable of sliding and closing. The Chinese character for umbrella is 傘 (sǎn) and is a pictograph resembling the modern umbrella in design. Some investigators have supposed that its invention was first created by tying large leaves to bough-like ribs (the branching out parts of an umbrella). Others assert that the idea was probably derived from the tent, which remains in form unaltered to the present day. However, the tradition existing in China is that it originated in standards and banners waving in the air, hence the use of the umbrella was often linked to high-ranking (though not necessarily royalty in China). On one occasion at least, twenty-four umbrellas were carried before the Emperor when he went out hunting. In this case the umbrella served as a defense against rain rather than sun. The Chinese design was later brought to Japan via Korea and also introduced to Persia and the Western world via the Silk Road. The Chinese and Japanese traditional parasol, often used near temples, to this day remains similar to the original ancient Chinese design. A late Song Dynasty Chinese divination book that was printed in about 1270 AD features a picture of a collapsible umbrella that is exactly like the modern umbrella of today's China.[11] Ancient Egypt In Egypt, the parasol is found in various shapes. In some instances it is depicted as a flagellum, a fan of palm-leaves or coloured feathers fixed on a long handle, resembling those now carried behind the Pope in processions.[8] Gardiner Wilkinson, in his work on Egypt, has an engraving of an Ethiopian princess travelling through Upper Egypt in a chariot; a kind of umbrella fastened to a stout pole rises in the centre, bearing a close affinity to what are now termed chaise umbrellas.[8] According to Wilkinson's account, the umbrella was generally used throughout Egypt, partly as a mark of distinction, but more on account of its useful than its ornamental qualities.[8] In some paintings on a temple wall, a parasol is held over the figure of a god carried in procession.[8] Ancient Greece In Greece, the parasol (skiadeion), was an indispensable adjunct to a lady of fashion in the late 5th century BC.[12] Aristophanes mentions it among the common articles of female use;[13] they could apparently open and close.[14] Pausanias describes a tomb near Triteia in Achaia decorated with a 4th-century BC painting ascribed to Nikias; it depicted the figure of a woman, "and by her stood a female slave, bearing a parasol".[15] For a man to carry one was considered a mark of effeminacy.[16] In Aristophanes' Birds, Prometheus uses one as a comical disguise.[17] It had also its religious signification. In the Scirophoria, the feast of Athene Sciras, a white parasol was borne by the priestesses of the goddess from the Acropolis to the Phalerus. In the feasts of Dionysos the umbrella was used, and in an old bas-relief the same god is represented as descending ad inferos with a small umbrella in his hand. In the Panathenæa, the daughters of the Metics, or foreign residents, carried parasols over the heads of Athenian women as a mark of inferiority. Ancient Rome From Greece it is probable that the use of the parasol passed to Rome, where it seems to have been usually used by women, while it was the custom even for effeminate men to defend themselves from the heat by means of the Umbraculum, formed of skin or leather, and capable of being lowered at will. There are frequent references to the umbrella in the Roman Classics, and it appears that it was, not unlikely, a post of honour among maid-servants to bear it over their mistresses. Allusions to it are tolerably frequent in the poets. (Ovid Fast. lib. ii., 1. 31 I.; Martial, lib. xi., ch. 73.; lib. xiv, ch. 28, 130; Juvenal, ix., 50.; Ovid Ars. Am., ii., 209). From such mentions the umbrella does not appear to have been used as a defence from rain; this is curious enough, for it is known that the theatres were protected by the velarium or awning, which was drawn across the arena whenever a sudden shower came on. Possibly the expense bestowed in the decoration of the umbraculum was a reason for its not being applied to such use. According to Gorius, the umbrella came to Rome from the Etruscans who came to Rome for protection, and certainly it appears not infrequently on Etruscan vases and pottery, as also on later gems and rubies. One gem, figured by Pacudius, shows an umbrella with a bent handle, sloping backwards. Strabo describes a sort of screen or umbrella worn by Spanish women, but this is not like a modern umbrella. The Sanskrit epic Mahabharata (about 4th century) relates the following legend: Jamadagni was a skilled bow shooter, and his devoted wife Renuka would always recover each of his arrows immediately. One time however, it took her a whole day to fetch the arrow, and she later blamed the heat of the sun for the delay. The angry Jamadagni shot an arrow at the sun. The sun begged for mercy and offered Renuka an umbrella.[18] Jean Baptiste Tavernier, in his 17th century book "Voyage to the East", says that on each side of the Mogul's throne were two umbrellas, and also describes the hall of the King of Ava was decorated with an umbrella. The chháta of the Indian and Burmese princes is large and heavy, and requires a special attendant, who has a regular position in the royal household. In Ava it seems to have been part of the king's title, that he was "King of the white elephant, and Lord of the twenty-four umbrellas." In 1855 the King of Burma directed a letter to the Marquis of Dalhousie in which he styles himself "His great, glorious, and most excellent Majesty, who reigns over the kingdoms of Thunaparanta, Tampadipa, and all the great umbrella-wearing chiefs of the Eastern countries". Siam Simon de la Loubère, who was Envoy Extraordinary from the French King to the King of Siam in 1687 and 1688, wrote an account entitled a "New Historical Relation of the Kingdom of Siam", which was translated in 1693 into English. According to his account the use of the umbrella was granted to only some of the subjects by the king. An umbrella with several circles, as if two or three umbrellas were fastened on the same stick, was permitted to the king alone; the nobles carried a single umbrella with painted cloths hanging from it. The Talapoins (who seem to have been a sort of Siamese monks) had umbrellas made of a palm-leaf cut and folded, so that the stem formed a handle. Aztec Empire The At district of Tenochtitlan was reported to have used an umbrella made from feathers and gold as its pantli, an identifying marker that is the equivalent of a modern flag. The pantli was carried by the army general.[19] Europe The extreme paucity of allusions to umbrellas throughout the Middle Ages shows that they were not in common use. In an old romance, "The Blonde of Oxford", a jester makes fun of a nobleman for being out in the rain without his cloak. "Were I a rich man", says he, "I would bear my house about with me". It appears that people depended on cloaks, not umbrellas, for protection against storms. Thomas Wright, in his Domestic Manners of the English, gives a drawing from the Harleian MS., No. 604, which represents an Anglo-Saxon gentleman walking out attended by his servant, the servant carrying an umbrella with a handle that slopes backwards, so as to bring the umbrella over the head of the person in front.[20] It probably could not be closed, but otherwise it looks like an ordinary umbrella, and the ribs are represented distinctly.[20] The general use of the umbrella in France and England was adopted, probably from China,[20] about the middle of the seventeenth century.[20] At that period, pictorial representations of it are frequently found, some of which exhibit the peculiar broad and deep canopy belonging to the large parasol of the Chinese Government officials, borne by native attendants.[20] John Evelyn, in his Diary for June 22, 1664, mentions a collection of rarities shown to him by "Thompson", a Roman Catholic priest, sent by the Jesuits of Japan and China to France.[20] Among the curiosities were "fans like those our ladies use, but much larger, and with long handles, strangely carved and filled with Chinese characters", which is evidently a description of the parasol.[20] In Thomas Coryat's Crudities, published in 1611, about a century and a half prior to the general introduction of the umbrella into England,[20] is a reference to a custom of riders in Italy using umbrellas: And many of them doe carry other fine things of a far greater price, that will cost at the least a duckat, which they commonly call in the Italian tongue umbrellas, that is, things which minister shadowve to them for shelter against the scorching heate of the sunne. These are made of leather, something answerable to the forme of a little cannopy, & hooped in the inside with divers little wooden hoopes that extend the umbrella in a pretty large compasse. They are used especially by horsemen, who carry them in their hands when they ride, fastening the end of the handle upon one of their thighs, and they impart so large a shadow unto them, that it keepeth the heate of the sunne from the upper parts of their bodies.[20] In John Florio's "A WORLD of Words" (1598), the Italian word Ombrella is translated a fan, a canopie. also a testern or cloth of state for a prince. also a kind of round fan or shadowing that they vse to ride with in sommer in Italy, a little shade. Also a bonegrace for a woman. Also the husk or cod of any seede or corne. also a broad spreding bunch, as of fenell, nill, or elder bloomes.[20] In Randle Cotgrave's Dictionary of the French and English Tongues (1614), the French Ombrelle is translated An umbrello; a (fashion of) round and broad fanne, wherewith the Indians (and from them our great ones) preserve themselves from the heat of a scorching sunne; and hence any little shadow, fanne, or thing, wherewith women hide their faces fro the sunne. In Fynes Moryson's Itinerary (1617) is a similar allusion to the habit of carrying umbrellas in hot countries "to auoide the beames of the sunne". Their employment, says the author, is dangerous, "because they gather the heate into a pyramidall point, and thence cast it down perpendicularly upon the head, except they know how to carry them for auoyding that danger" Kersey's Dictionary (1708) describes an umbrella as a "screen commonly used by women to keep off rain". Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe constructs his own umbrella in imitation of the ones he had seen used in Brazil. "I covered it with skins," he says, "the hair outwards, so that it cast off the rain like a pent-house, and kept off the sun so effectually, that I could walk out in the hottest of the weather with greater advantage than I could before in the coolest." From this description the original heavy umbrellas obtained the name of "Robinson", which they retained for many years, both in England and France. Captain James Cook, in one of his voyages, sees some of the natives of the South Pacific Islands, with umbrellas made of palm leaves. That the use of the umbrella or parasol—though not unknown—was not very common during the earlier half of the eighteenth century, is evident from the fact that General (then Lieut.-Colonel) James Wolfe, writing from Paris in 1752, speaks of the people there using umbrellas for the sun and rain, and wonders that a similar practice does not obtain in England. Just about the same time they seem to have come into general use, and that pretty rapidly, as people found their value, and got over the shyness natural to a first introduction. Jonas Hanway, the founder of the Magdalen Hospital, has the credit of being the first man who ventured to dare public reproach and ridicule by carrying one habitually in London. As he died in 1786, and he is said to have carried an umbrella for thirty years, the date of its first use by him may be set down at about 1750. John Macdonald[disambiguation needed] relates that in 1770, he used to be greeted with the shout, "Frenchman, Frenchman! why don't you call a coach?" whenever he went out with his umbrella. By 1788 however they seem to have been accepted: a London newspaper advertises the sale of 'improved and pocket Umbrellas, on steel frames, with every other kind of common Umbrella.'[21] But full acceptance is not complete even today with some considering umbrellas effete. Since this date, however, the umbrella has come into general use, and in consequence numerous improvements have been effected in it. In China people learned how to waterproof their umbrellas by waxing and lacquering their paper Parasols. The transition to the present portable form is due, partly to the substitution of silk and gingham for the heavy and troublesome oiled silk, which admitted of the ribs and frames being made much lighter, and also to many ingenious mechanical improvements in the framework. Victorian era umbrellas had frames of wood or baleen, but these devices were expensive and hard to fold when wet. Samuel Fox invented the steel-ribbed umbrella in 1852; however, the Encyclopédie Méthodique mentions metal ribs at the end of the eighteenth century, and they were also on sale in London during the 1780s.[21] Modern designs usually employ a telescoping steel trunk; new materials such as cotton, plastic film and nylon often replace the original silk. In 1928, Hans Haupt's pocket umbrellas appeared.[22] In 1969, Bradford E Phillips, the owner of Totes Incorporated of Loveland, Ohio obtained a patent for the first "working folding umbrella".[23] Umbrellas have also been fashioned into hats as early as 1880 and at least as recently as 1987.[24] Golf umbrellas, one of the largest sizes in common use, are typically around 62 inches (157 cm) across, but can range anywhere from 60 to 70 inches (150 to 180 cm).[25] Umbrellas are now a consumer product with a large global market. As of 2008, most umbrellas worldwide are made in China, mostly in the Guangdong, Fujian and Zhejiang provinces. The city of Shangyu alone had more than a thousand umbrella factories. In the US alone, about 33 million umbrellas, worth $348 million, are sold each year. Umbrellas continue to be actively developed. In the US, so many umbrella-related patents are being filed that the U.S. Patent Office employs four full-time examiners to assess them. As of 2008, the office registered three thousand active patents on umbrella-related inventions. Nonetheless, Totes, the largest American umbrella producer, has stopped accepting unsolicited proposals. Its director of umbrella development was reported as saying that while umbrellas are so ordinary that everyone thinks about them, "it's difficult to come up with an umbrella idea that hasn’t already been done."[26] While the predominate canopy shape of an umbrella is round, canopy shapes have been streamlined to improve aerodynamic response to wind. Examples include the stealth-shaped canopy of Rizotti[27] (1996), scoop-shaped canopy of Lisciandro[28] (2004), and teardrop-shaped canopies of Hollinger[29] (2004). In 2005 Gerwin Hoogendoorn,[30] a Dutch industrial design student of the Delft University of Technology[31] in the Netherlands, invented an aerodynamically streamlined storm umbrella (with a similar shape as a stealth plane)[32][33] which can withstand wind force 10 (winds of up to 100 km/h or 70 mp/h)[33][34] and won't turn inside-out like a regular umbrella[31] as well as being equipped with so-called ‘eyesavers’ which protect others from being accidentally wounded by the tips.[31] Hoogendoorn's storm umbrella was nominated for and won several design awards[35] and was featured on Good Morning America.[32] The umbrella is sold in Europe as the Senz umbrella and is sold under license by Totes in the United States.[36] The "DAVEK" line of upscale umbrellas features a uniquely strong, patented frame system and unconditional lifetime guarantee. Alan Kaufman's "Nubrella" and Greg Brebner's "Blunt" are other contemporary designs. In the 1950s Frei Otto transformed the universally used individual umbrella into an item of lightweight architecture. He developed a new umbrella form, based on the minimum surface principle. The tension loaded membrane of the funnel-shaped umbrella is now streched under the compression-loaded bars. This construction type made it technically and structurally possible to build very large convertible umbrellas.[37] The first umbrellas of this kind (Federal Garden Exhibition, Kassel, 1955) were fixed, Frei Otto constructed the first convertible large umbrellas for the Federal Garden Exhibition in Cologne 1971. In 1978 he built a group of ten convertible umbrellas for British rock group Pink Floyd´s American tour. The great beauty of these lightweight structures inspired many subsequent projects built all over the world. The largest convertible umbrellas built until now were designed by Mahmoud Bodo Rasch and his team to provide shelter from sun and rain for the great mosques in Saudi Arabia The umbrella is used in weather forecasting as an icon for rain. Two variations, a plain umbrella (☂, U+2602) and an umbrella with raindrops overhead (☔, U+2614), are encoded in the Miscellaneous Symbols block of Unicode. As a canopy of state, umbrellas were generally used in southern and eastern Europe, and then passed from the imperial court into church ceremony. They are found in the ceremonies of the Byzantine Church, were borne over the Host in procession, and form part of the Pontifical regalia. Catholic Church The ombrellino or umbraculum is a part of the papal regalia. Although the popes no longer use it personally, it is displayed on the coat of arms of a sede vacante (the papal arms used between the death of a pope and the election of his successor). This umbraculum is normally made of alternating red and gold fabric, and is usually displayed in a partially unfolded manner. The popes have traditionally bestowed the use of the umbraculum as a mark of honor upon specific persons and places. The use of an umbraculum is one of the honorary symbols of a basilica and may be used in the basilica's coat of arms, and carried in processions by the basilica's canons. A large umbrella is displayed in each of the Basilicas of Rome, and a cardinal bishop who receives his title from one of those churches has the privilege of having an umbrella carried over his head in solemn processions. It is possible that the galero (wide-brimmed cardinal's hat) may be derived from this umbrella.[citation needed] Beatiano, an Italian herald, says that "a vermilion umbrella in a field argent symbolises dominion." An umbrella, also known as the umbraculum or ombrellino, is used in Roman Catholic liturgy as well. It is held over the Holy Sacrament of the Eucharist and its carrier by a server in short processions taking place indoors, or until the priest is met at the sanctuary entrance by the bearers of the processional canopy or baldacchino. It is regularly white or golden (the colours reserved for the Holy Sacrament) and made of silk. In several Oriental Orthodox Churches, such as the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church, umbrellas are used liturgically to show honor to a person (such as a bishop) or a holy object. In the ceremonies of Timkat (Epiphany), priests will carry a model of the Ark of the Covenant, called a Tabot, on their heads in procession to a body of water, which will then be blessed. Brightly colored embroidered and fringed liturgical parasols are carried above the Tabota during this procession. Such processions also take place on other major feast days. In photography Main article: Reflector (photography) Umbrellas with a reflective inside are used by photographers as a diffusion device when employing artificial lighting, and as a glare shield and shade, most often in portrait situations.[40] Some umbrellas are shoot-through umbrellas, meaning the light goes through the umbrella and is diffused, rather than reflecting off the inside of the umbrella.[41] Photographic umbrellas, like all umbrellas, tend to catch the wind, so any umbrella on a lightstand has to be well secured, especially when used outdoors, lest a breeze topple it, possibly destroying the umbrella and/or other equipment on the lightstand. For protection against attackers In 1838, the Baron Charles Random de Berenger instructed readers of his book How to Protect Life and Property in several methods of using an umbrella as an improvised weapon against highwaymen. In 1897, journalist J. F. Sullivan proposed the umbrella as a misunderstood weapon in a tongue-in-cheek article for the Ludgate Monthly. Between 1899 and 1902, both umbrellas and walking sticks as self defence weapons were incorporated into the repertoire of Bartitsu. In January 1902, an article in The Daily Mirror instructed women on how they could defend themselves from ruffians with an umbrella or parasol. In March 2011 media outlets revealed that French president Nicolas Sarkozy has started using a £10,000 armor-plated umbrella to protect him from attackers. "Para Pactum" is a Kevlar-coated device made by The Real Cherbourg. It will be carried by a member of Sarkozy's security team.[42] As a weapon of attack In 1978 Bulgarian dissident writer Georgi Markov was killed in London by a dose of ricin injected via a modified umbrella. The KGB is widely believed to have developed a modified umbrella that could deliver a deadly pellet.[citation needed] In 2005 in a well-known case in South Africa, Brian Hahn, associate professor in mathematics and applied mathematics at the University of Cape Town was beaten to death with an umbrella by ex-doctoral student Maleafisha Steve Tladi.[43] In the 1992 film Batman Returns, the Penguin (Danny DeVito) sports a bullet and gas-firing umbrella. Quelle: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umbrella de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regenschirm Fotografie oder Photographie (aus griechisch φῶς, phos, im Genitiv: φωτός, photos, „Licht (der Himmelskörper)“, „Helligkeit“ und γράφειν, graphein, „zeichnen“, „ritzen“, „malen“, „schreiben“) bezeichnet eine bildgebende Methode,[1] bei der mit Hilfe von optischen Verfahren ein Lichtbild auf ein lichtempfindliches Medium projiziert und dort direkt und dauerhaft gespeichert (analoges Verfahren) oder in elektronische Daten gewandelt und gespeichert wird (digitales Verfahren). das dauerhafte Lichtbild (Diapositiv, Filmbild oder Papierbild; kurz Bild, umgangssprachlich auch Foto genannt), das durch fotografische Verfahren hergestellt wird; dabei kann es sich entweder um ein Positiv oder ein Negativ auf Film, Folie, Papier oder anderen fotografischen Trägern handeln. Fotografische Aufnahmen werden als Abzug, Vergrößerung, Filmkopie oder als Ausbelichtung bzw. Druck von digitalen Bild-Dateien vervielfältigt. Der entsprechende Beruf ist der Fotograf. Bilder, die für das Kino aufgenommen werden. Beliebig viele fotografische Bilder werden in Reihen von Einzelbildern auf Film aufgenommen, die später mit einem Filmprojektor als bewegte Bilder (Laufbilder) vorgeführt werden können (siehe Film). Der Begriff Photographie wurde erstmals (noch vor englischen oder französischen Veröffentlichungen) am 25. Februar 1839 vom Astronomen Johann Heinrich von Mädler in der Vossischen Zeitung verwendet.[2] Bis ins 20. Jahrhundert bezeichnete Fotografie alle Bilder, welche rein durch Licht auf einer chemisch behandelten Oberfläche entstehen. Mit der deutschen Rechtschreibreform 1901 wurde die Schreibweise „Fotografie“ empfohlen, was sich jedoch bis heute nicht ganz durchsetzen konnte. Gemischte Schreibungen wie „Fotographie“ oder „Photografie“ sowie daraus abgewandelte Adjektive oder Substantive waren jedoch zu jeder Zeit eine falsche Schreibweise. Allgemeines Die Fotografie ist ein Medium, das in sehr verschiedenen Zusammenhängen eingesetzt wird. Fotografische Abbildungen können beispielsweise Gegenstände mit primär künstlerischem (künstlerische Fotografie) oder primär kommerziellem Charakter sein (Industriefotografie, Werbe- und Modefotografie). Die Fotografie kann unter künstlerischen, technischen (Fototechnik), ökonomischen (Fotowirtschaft) und gesellschaftlich-sozialen (Amateur-, Arbeiter- und Dokumentarfotografie) Aspekten betrachtet werden. Des Weiteren werden Fotografien im Journalismus und in der Medizin verwendet. Die Fotografie ist teilweise ein Gegenstand der Forschung und Lehre in der Kunstgeschichte und der noch jungen Bildwissenschaft. Der mögliche Kunstcharakter der Fotografie war lange Zeit umstritten, ist jedoch seit der fotografischen Stilrichtung des Pictorialismus um die Wende zum 20. Jahrhundert letztlich nicht mehr bestritten. Einige Forschungsrichtungen ordnen die Fotografie der Medien- oder Kommunikationswissenschaft zu, auch diese Zuordnung ist umstritten. Im Zuge der technologischen Weiterentwicklung fand zu Beginn des 21. Jahrhunderts allmählich der Wandel von der klassischen analogen (Silber-)Fotografie hin zur Digitalfotografie statt. Der weltweite Zusammenbruch der damit in Zusammenhang stehenden Industrie für analoge Kameras aber auch für Verbrauchsmaterialien (Filme, Fotopapier, Fotochemie, Laborgeräte) führt dazu, dass die Fotografie mehr und mehr auch unter kulturwissenschaftlicher und kulturhistorischer Sicht erforscht wird. Allgemein kulturelle Aspekte in der Forschung sind z.B. Betrachtungen über den Erhalt und die Dokumentation der praktischen Kenntnis der fotografischen Verfahren für Aufnahme und Verarbeitung aber auch der Wandel im Umgang mit der Fotografie im Alltag. Zunehmend kulturhistorisch interessant werden die Archivierungs- und Erhaltungstechniken für analoge Aufnahmen aber auch die systemunabhängige langfristige digitale Datenspeicherung. Die Fotografie unterliegt dem komplexen und vielschichtigen Fotorecht; bei der Nutzung von vorhandenen Fotografien sind die Bildrechte zu beachten. Fototechnik Prinzipiell wird meist mit Hilfe eines optischen Systems, in vielen Fällen einem Objektiv, fotografiert. Dieses wirft das von einem Objekt ausgesendete oder reflektierte Licht auf die lichtempfindliche Schicht einer Fotoplatte, eines Films oder auf einen fotoelektrischen Wandler, einen Bildsensor. → Hauptartikel: Fototechnik Fotografische Kameras → Hauptartikel: Kamera Der fotografischen Aufnahme dient eine fotografische Apparatur (Kamera). Durch Manipulation des optischen Systems (unter anderem die Einstellung der Blende, Scharfstellung, Farbfilterung, die Wahl der Belichtungszeit, der Objektivbrennweite, der Beleuchtung und nicht zuletzt des Aufnahmematerials) stehen dem Fotografen oder Kameramann zahlreiche Gestaltungsmöglichkeiten offen. Als vielseitigste Fotoapparatbauform hat sich sowohl im Analog- als auch im Digitalbereich die Spiegelreflexkamera durchgesetzt. Für viele Aufgaben werden weiterhin die verschiedensten Spezialkameras benötigt und eingesetzt. Lichtempfindliche Schicht Bei der filmbasierten Fotografie (z. B. Silber-Fotografie) ist die lichtempfindliche Schicht auf der Bildebene eine Dispersion (im allgemeinen Sprachgebrauch Emulsion). Sie besteht aus einem Gel, in dem gleichmäßig kleine Körnchen eines Silberhalogenids (zum Beispiel Silberbromid) verteilt sind. Je kleiner die Körnung ist, umso weniger lichtempfindlich ist die Schicht (siehe ISO-5800-Standard), umso besser ist allerdings die Auflösung („Korn“). Dieser lichtempfindlichen Schicht wird durch einen Träger Stabilität verliehen. Trägermaterialien sind Zelluloseacetat, früher diente dazu Zellulosenitrat (Zelluloid), Kunststofffolien, Metallplatten, Glasplatten und sogar Textilien (siehe Fotoplatte und Film). Bei der Digitalfotografie besteht das Äquivalent der lichtempfindlichen Schicht aus Chips wie CCD- oder CMOS-Sensoren. Entwicklung und Fixierung Durch das Entwickeln bei der filmbasierten Fotografie wird auf chemischem Wege das latente Bild sichtbar gemacht. Beim Fixieren werden die nicht belichteten Silberhalogenid-Körnchen wasserlöslich gemacht und anschließend mit Wasser herausgewaschen, sodass ein Bild bei Tageslicht betrachtet werden kann, ohne dass es nachdunkelt. Ein weiteres älteres Verfahren ist das Staubverfahren, mit dem sich einbrennbare Bilder auf Glas und Porzellan herstellen lassen. Ein digitales Bild muss nicht entwickelt werden; es wird elektronisch gespeichert und kann anschließend mit der elektronischen Bildbearbeitung am Computer bearbeitet und bei Bedarf auf Fotopapier ausbelichtet oder beispielsweise mit einem Tintenstrahldrucker ausgedruckt werden. Bei der Weiterverarbeitung von Rohdaten spricht man auch hier von Entwicklung. Der Abzug Als Abzug bezeichnet man das Ergebnis einer Kontaktkopie, einer Vergrößerung, oder einer Ausbelichtung; dabei entsteht in der Regel ein Papierbild. Abzüge können von Filmen (Negativ oder Dia) oder von Dateien gefertigt werden. Abzüge als Kontaktkopie haben dieselbe Größe wie die Abmessungen des Aufnahmeformats; wird eine Vergrößerung vom Negativ oder Positiv angefertigt, beträgt die Größe des entstehenden Bildes ein Vielfaches der Größe der Vorlage, dabei wird jedoch in der Regel das Seitenverhältnis beibehalten, das bei der klassischen Fotografie bei 1,5 bzw. 3:2 oder in USA 4:5 liegt. Eine Ausnahme davon stellt die Ausschnittvergrößerung dar, deren Seitenverhältnis in der Bühne eines Vergrößerers beliebig festgelegt werden kann; allerdings wird auch die Ausschnittvergrößerung in der Regel auf ein Papierformat mit bestimmten Abmessungen belichtet. Der Abzug ist eine häufig gewählte Präsentationsform der Amateurfotografie, die in speziellen Kassetten oder Alben gesammelt werden. Bei der Präsentationsform der Diaprojektion arbeitet man in der Regel mit dem Original-Diapositiv, also einem Unikat, während es sich bei Abzügen immer um Kopien handelt. Geschichte der Fotografie → Hauptartikel: Geschichte und Entwicklung der Fotografie Vorläufer und Vorgeschichte[Bearbeiten] Der Name Kamera leitet sich vom Vorläufer der Fotografie, der Camera obscura („Dunkle Kammer“) ab, die bereits seit dem 11. Jahrhundert bekannt ist und Ende des 13. Jahrhunderts von Astronomen zur Sonnenbeobachtung eingesetzt wurde. Anstelle einer Linse weist diese Kamera nur ein kleines Loch auf, durch das die Lichtstrahlen auf eine Projektionsfläche fallen, von der das auf dem Kopf stehende, seitenverkehrte Bild abgezeichnet werden kann. In Edinburgh und Greenwich bei London sind begehbare, raumgroße Camerae obscurae eine Touristenattraktion. Auch das Deutsche Filmmuseum hat eine Camera obscura, in der ein Bild des gegenüberliegenden Mainufers projiziert wird. Ein Durchbruch ist 1550 die Wiedererfindung der Linse, mit der hellere und gleichzeitig schärfere Bilder erzeugt werden können. 1685: Ablenkspiegel, ein Abbild kann so auf Papier gezeichnet werden. Im 18. Jahrhundert kamen die Laterna magica, das Panorama und das Diorama auf. Chemiker wie Humphry Davy begannen bereits, lichtempfindliche Stoffe zu untersuchen und nach Fixiermitteln zu suchen. Die frühen Verfahren Die vermutlich erste Fotografie der Welt wurde im Frühherbst 1826 durch Joseph Nicéphore Nièpce im Heliografie-Verfahren angefertigt. 1837 benutzte Louis Jacques Mandé Daguerre ein besseres Verfahren, das auf der Entwicklung der Fotos mit Hilfe von Quecksilber-Dämpfen und anschließender Fixierung in einer heißen Kochsalzlösung oder einer normal temperierten Natriumthiosulfatlösung beruhte. Die auf diese Weise hergestellten Bilder, allesamt Unikate auf versilberten Kupferplatten, wurden als Daguerreotypien bezeichnet. Bereits 1835 hatte der Engländer William Fox Talbot das Negativ-Positiv-Verfahren erfunden. Auch heute werden noch manche der historischen Verfahren als Edeldruckverfahren in der Bildenden Kunst und künstlerischen Fotografie verwendet. Im Jahr 1883 erschien in der bedeutenden Leipziger Wochenzeitschrift Illustrirte Zeitung zum ersten Mal in einer deutschen Publikation ein gerastertes Foto in Form einer Autotypie, einer um 1880 erfolgten Erfindung von Georg Meisenbach. 20. Jahrhundert Fotografien konnten zunächst nur als Unikate hergestellt werden, mit der Einführung des Negativ-Positiv-Verfahrens war eine Vervielfältigung im Kontaktverfahren möglich. Die Größe des fertigen Fotos entsprach in beiden Fällen dem Aufnahmeformat, was sehr große, unhandliche Kameras erforderte. Mit dem Rollfilm und insbesondere der von Oskar Barnack bei den Leitz Werken entwickelten und 1924 eingeführten Kleinbildkamera, die den herkömmlichen 35-mm-Kinofilm verwendete, entstanden völlig neue Möglichkeiten für eine mobile, schnelle Fotografie. Obwohl, durch das kleine Format bedingt, zusätzliche Geräte zur Vergrößerung erforderlich wurden, und die Bildqualität mit den großen Formaten bei Weitem nicht mithalten konnte, setzte sich das Kleinbild in den meisten Bereichen der Fotografie als Standardformat durch. Analogfotografie → Hauptartikel: Analogfotografie Begriff Zur Abgrenzung gegenüber den neuen fotografischen Verfahren der Digitalfotografie tauchte zu Beginn des 21. Jahrhunderts[3] der Begriff Analogfotografie oder stattdessen auch die zu diesem Zeitpunkt bereits veraltete Schreibweise Photographie wieder auf. Um der Öffentlichkeit ab 1990 die seinerzeit neue Technologie der digitalen Speicherung von Bilddateien zu erklären, verglich man sie in einigen Publikationen technisch mit der bis dahin verwendeten analogen Bildspeicherung der Still-Video-Kamera. Durch Übersetzungsfehler und Fehlinterpretationen, sowie durch den bis dahin noch allgemein vorherrschenden Mangel an technischem Verständnis über die digitale Kameratechnik, bezeichneten einige Journalisten danach irrtümlich auch die bisherigen klassischen Film-basierten Kamerasysteme als Analogkameras[4][5]. Der Begriff hat sich bis heute erhalten und bezeichnet nun fälschlich nicht mehr die Fotografie mittels analoger Speichertechnik in den ersten digitalen Still-Video-Kameras, sondern nur noch die Technik der Film-basierten Fotografie. Bei dieser wird aber weder digital noch analog 'gespeichert', sondern chemisch/physikalisch fixiert. Allgemeines Eine Fotografie kann weder analog noch digital sein. Lediglich die Bildinformation kann punktuell mittels physikalischer, analog messbarer Signale (Densitometrie, Spektroskopie) bestimmt und gegebenenfalls nachträglich digitalisiert werden. Nach der Belichtung des Films liegt die Bildinformation zunächst nur latent vor. Gespeichert wird diese Information nicht in der Analogkamera sondern erst bei der Entwicklung des Films mittels chemischer Reaktion in einer dreidimensionalen Gelatineschicht (Film hat mehrere übereinander liegende Sensibilisierungsschichten). Die Bildinformation liegt danach auf dem ursprünglichen Aufnahmemedium (Diapositiv oder Negativ) unmittelbar vor. Sie ist ohne weitere Hilfsmittel als Fotografie (Unikat) in Form von entwickelten Silberhalogeniden bzw. Farbkupplern sichtbar. Gegebenenfalls kann aus solchen Fotografien in einem zweiten chemischen Prozess im Fotolabor ein Papierbild erzeugt werden, bzw. kann dies nun auch durch Einscannen und Ausdrucken erfolgen. Bei der digitalen Speicherung werden die analogen Signale aus dem Kamerasensor in einer zweiten Stufe digitalisiert und werden damit elektronisch interpretier- und weiterverarbeitbar. Die digitale Bildspeicherung mittels Analog-Digital-Wandler nach Auslesen aus dem Chip der Digitalkamera arbeitet (vereinfacht) mit einer lediglich zweidimensional erzeugten digitalen Interpretation der analogen Bildinformation und erzeugt eine beliebig oft (praktisch verlustfrei) kopierbare Datei in Form von differentiell ermittelten digitalen Absolutwerten. Diese Dateien werden unmittelbar nach der Aufnahme innerhalb der Kamera in Speicherkarten abgelegt. Mittels geeigneter Bildbearbeitungssoftware können diese Dateien danach ausgelesen, weiter verarbeitet und auf einem Monitor oder Drucker als sichtbare Fotografie ausgegeben werden. Digitalfotografie Die erste CCD (Charge-coupled Device) Still-Video-Kamera wurde 1970 von Bell konstruiert und 1972 meldet Texas Instruments das erste Patent auf eine filmlose Kamera an, welche einen Fernsehbildschirm als Sucher verwendet. 1973 produzierte Fairchild Imaging das erste kommerzielle CCD mit einer Auflösung von 100 × 100 Pixel. Dieses CCD wurde 1975 in der ersten funktionstüchtigen digitalen Kamera von Kodak benutzt. Entwickelt hat sie der Erfinder Steven Sasson. Diese Kamera wog 3,6 Kilogramm, war größer als ein Toaster und benötigte noch 23 Sekunden, um ein Schwarz-Weiß-Bild mit 100x100 Pixeln Auflösung auf eine digitale Magnetbandkassette zu übertragen; um das Bild auf einem Bildschirm sichtbar zu machen, bedurfte es weiterer 23 Sekunden. 1986 stellte Canon mit der RC-701 die erste kommerziell erhältliche Still-Video-Kamera mit magnetischer Aufzeichnung der Bilddaten vor, Minolta präsentierte den Still Video Back SB-90/SB-90S für die Minolta 9000; durch Austausch der Rückwand der Kleinbild-Spiegelreflexkamera wurde aus der Minolta 9000 eine digitale Spiegelreflexkamera; gespeichert wurden die Bilddaten auf 2-Zoll-Disketten. 1987 folgten weitere Modelle der RC-Serie von Canon sowie digitale Kameras von Fujifilm (ES-1), Konica (KC-400) und Sony (MVC-A7AF). 1988 folgte Nikon mit der QV-1000C und 1990 sowie 1991 Kodak mit dem DCS (Digital Camera System) sowie Rollei mit dem Digital Scan Pack. Ab Anfang der 1990er Jahre kann die Digitalfotografie im kommerziellen Bildproduktionsbereich als eingeführt betrachtet werden. Die digitale Fotografie revolutionierte die Möglichkeiten der digitalen Kunst, erleichtert insbesondere aber auch Fotomanipulationen. Die Photokina 2006 zeigt, dass die Zeit der filmbasierten Kamera endgültig vorbei ist.[6] Im Jahr 2007 sind weltweit 91 Prozent aller verkauften Fotokameras digital,[7] die herkömmliche Fotografie auf Filmen schrumpft auf Nischenbereiche zusammen. Im Jahr 2011 besaßen rund 45,4 Millionen Personen in Deutschland einen digitalen Fotoapparat im Haushalt und im gleichen Jahr wurden in Deutschland rund 8,57 Millionen Digitalkameras verkauft.[8] Siehe auch: Chronologie der Fotografie und Geschichte und Entwicklung der Fotografie Fotografie als Kunst Der Kunstcharakter der Fotografie war lange Zeit umstritten; zugespitzt formuliert der Kunsttheoretiker Karl Pawek in seinem Buch „Das optische Zeitalter“ (Olten/Freiburg i. Br. 1963, S. 58): „Der Künstler erschafft die Wirklichkeit, der Fotograf sieht sie.“ Diese Auffassung betrachtet die Fotografie nur als ein technisches, standardisiertes Verfahren, mit dem eine Wirklichkeit auf eine objektive, quasi „natürliche“ Weise abgebildet wird, ohne das dabei gestalterische und damit künstlerische Aspekte zum Tragen kommen: „die Erfindung eines Apparates zum Zwecke der Produktion … (perspektivischer) Bilder hat ironischerweise die Überzeugung … verstärkt, dass es sich hierbei um die natürliche Repräsentationsform handele. Offenbar ist etwas natürlich, wenn wir eine Maschine bauen können, die es für uns erledigt.“[9] Fotografien dienten gleichwohl aber schon bald als Unterrichtsmittel bzw. Vorlage in der Ausbildung bildender Künstler (Études d’après nature). Schon in Texten des 19. Jahrhunderts wurde aber auch bereits auf den Kunstcharakter der Fotografie hingewiesen, der mit einem ähnlichen Einsatz der Technik wie bei anderen anerkannten zeitgenössische grafische Verfahren (Aquatinta, Radierung, Lithografie, …) begründet wird. Damit wird auch die Fotografie zu einem künstlerischen Verfahren, mit dem ein Fotograf eigene Bildwirklichkeiten erschafft.[10] Auch zahlreiche Maler des 19. Jahrhunderts, wie etwa Eugène Delacroix, erkannten dies und nutzten Fotografien als Mittel zur Bildfindung und Gestaltung, als künstlerisches Entwurfsinstrument für malerische Werke, allerdings weiterhin ohne ihr einen eigenständigen künstlerischen Wert zuzusprechen. Der Fotograf Henri Cartier-Bresson, selbst als Maler ausgebildet, wollte die Fotografie ebenfalls nicht als Kunstform, sondern als Handwerk betrachtet wissen: „Die Fotografie ist ein Handwerk. Viele wollen daraus eine Kunst machen, aber wir sind einfach Handwerker, die ihre Arbeit gut machen müssen.“ Gleichzeitig nahm er aber für sich auch das Bildfindungskonzept des entscheidenden Augenblickes in Anspruch, das ursprünglich von Gotthold Ephraim Lessing dramenpoetologisch ausgearbeitet wurde. Damit bezieht er sich unmittelbar auf ein künstlerisches Verfahren zur Produktion von Kunstwerken. Cartier-Bressons Argumentation diente also einerseits der poetologischen Nobilitierung, andererseits der handwerklichen Immunisierung gegenüber einer Kritik, die die künstlerische Qualität seiner Werke anzweifeln könnte. So wurden gerade Cartier-Bressons Fotografien sehr früh in Museen und Kunstausstellungen gezeigt, so zum Beispiel in der MoMa-Retrospektive (1947) und der Louvre-Ausstellung (1955). Fotografie wurde bereits früh als Kunst betrieben (Julia Margaret Cameron, Lewis Carroll und Oscar Gustave Rejlander in den 1860ern). Der entscheidende Schritt zur Anerkennung der Fotografie als Kunstform ist den Bemühungen von Alfred Stieglitz (1864–1946) zu verdanken, der mit seinem Magazin Camera Work den Durchbruch vorbereitete. Erstmals trat die Fotografie in Deutschland in der Werkbund-Ausstellung 1929 in Stuttgart in beachtenswertem Umfang mit internationalen Künstlern wie Edward Weston, Imogen Cunningham und Man Ray an die Öffentlichkeit; spätestens seit den MoMA-Ausstellungen von Edward Steichen (The Family of Man, 1955) und John Szarkowski (1960er) ist Fotografie als Kunst von einem breiten Publikum anerkannt, wobei gleichzeitig der Trend zur Gebrauchskunst begann. Im Jahr 1977 stellte die documenta 6 in Kassel erstmals als international bedeutende Ausstellung in der berühmten Abteilung Fotografie die Arbeiten von historischen und zeitgenössischen Fotografen aus der gesamten Geschichte der Fotografie in den vergleichenden Kontext zur zeitgenössischen Kunst im Zusammenhang mit den in diesem Jahr begangenen „150 Jahren Fotografie“. Heute ist Fotografie als vollwertige Kunstform akzeptiert. Indikatoren dafür sind die wachsende Anzahl von Museen, Sammlungen und Forschungseinrichtungen für Fotografie, die Zunahme der Professuren für Fotografie sowie nicht zuletzt der gestiegene Wert von Fotografien in Kunstauktionen und Sammlerkreisen. Zahlreiche Gebiete haben sich entwickelt, so die Landschafts-, Akt-, Industrie-, Theaterfotografie und andere mehr, die innerhalb der Fotografie eigene Wirkungsfelder entfaltet haben. Daneben entwickelt sich die künstlerische Fotomontage zu einem der malenden Kunst gleichwertigen Kunstobjekt. Neben der steigenden Anzahl von Fotoausstellungen und deren Besucherzahlen wird die Popularität moderner Fotografie auch in den erzielten Verkaufspreisen auf Kunstauktionen sichtbar. Fünf der zehn Höchstgebote für moderne Fotografie wurden seit 2010 auf Auktionen erzielt. Die aktuell teuerste Fotografie "Rhein II" von Andreas Gursky wurde im November 2011 auf einer Kunstauktion in New York für 4,3 Millionen Dollar versteigert.[11] Neuere Diskussionen innerhalb der Foto- und Kunstwissenschaften verweisen indes auf eine zunehmende Beliebigkeit bei der Kategorisierung von Fotografie. Zunehmend werde demnach von der Kunst und ihren Institutionen absorbiert, was einst ausschließlich in die angewandten Bereiche der Fotografie gehört habe. Photography (see section below for etymology) is the art, science and practice of creating durable images by recording light or other electromagnetic radiation, either chemically by means of a light-sensitive material such as photographic film, or electronically by means of an image sensor.[1] Typically, a lens is used to focus the light reflected or emitted from objects into a real image on the light-sensitive surface inside a camera during a timed exposure. The result in an electronic image sensor is an electrical charge at each pixel, which is electronically processed and stored in a digital image file for subsequent display or processing. The result in a photographic emulsion is an invisible latent image, which is later chemically developed into a visible image, either negative or positive depending on the purpose of the photographic material and the method of processing. A negative image on film is traditionally used to photographically create a positive image on a paper base, known as a print, either by using an enlarger or by contact printing. Photography has many uses for business, science, manufacturing (e.g. photolithography), art, recreational purposes, and mass communication. The word "photography" was created from the Greek roots φωτός (phōtos), genitive of φῶς (phōs), "light"[2] and γραφή (graphé) "representation by means of lines" or "drawing",[3] together meaning "drawing with light".[4] Several people may have coined the same new term from these roots independently. Hercules Florence, a French painter and inventor living in Campinas, Brazil, used the French form of the word, photographie, in private notes which a Brazilian photography historian believes were written in 1834.[5] Johann von Maedler, a Berlin astronomer, is credited in a 1932 German history of photography as having used it in an article published on 25 February 1839 in the German newspaper Vossische Zeitung.[6] Both of these claims are now widely reported but apparently neither has ever been independently confirmed as beyond reasonable doubt. Credit has traditionally been given to Sir John Herschel both for coining the word and for introducing it to the public. His uses of it in private correspondence prior to 25 February 1839 and at his Royal Society lecture on the subject in London on 14 March 1839 have long been amply documented and accepted as settled fact. History and evolution Precursor technologies Photography is the result of combining several technical discoveries. Long before the first photographs were made, Chinese philosopher Mo Di and Greek mathematicians Aristotle and Euclid described a pinhole camera in the 5th and 4th centuries BCE.[8][9] In the 6th century CE, Byzantine mathematician Anthemius of Tralles used a type of camera obscura in his experiments,[10] Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) (965–1040) studied the camera obscura and pinhole camera,[9][11] Albertus Magnus (1193–1280) discovered silver nitrate,[12] and Georg Fabricius (1516–71) discovered silver chloride.[13] Techniques described in the Book of Optics are capable of producing primitive photographs using medieval materials. [14][15][16] Daniele Barbaro described a diaphragm in 1566.[17] Wilhelm Homberg described how light darkened some chemicals (photochemical effect) in 1694.[18] The fiction book Giphantie, published in 1760, by French author Tiphaigne de la Roche, described what can be interpreted as photography.[17] The discovery of the camera obscura that provides an image of a scene dates back to ancient China. Leonardo da Vinci mentions natural cameras obscura that are formed by dark caves on the edge of a sunlit valley. A hole in the cave wall will act as a pinhole camera and project a laterally reversed, upside down image on a piece of paper. So the birth of photography was primarily concerned with developing a means to fix and retain the image produced by the camera obscura. The first success of reproducing images without a camera occurred when Thomas Wedgwood, from the famous family of potters, obtained copies of paintings on leather using silver salts. Since he had no way of permanently fixing those reproductions (stabilizing the image by washing out the non-exposed silver salts), they would turn completely black in the light and thus had to be kept in a dark room for viewing. Renaissance painters used the camera obscura which, in fact, gives the optical rendering in color that dominates Western Art. The camera obscura literally means "dark chamber" in Latin. It is a box with a hole in it which allows light to go through and create an image onto the piece of paper. First camera photography (1820s) Invented in the early decades of the 19th century, photography by means of the camera seemed able to capture more detail and information than traditional media, such as painting and sculpture.[19] Photography as a usable process goes back to the 1820s with the development of chemical photography. The first permanent photoetching was an image produced in 1822 by the French inventor Nicéphore Niépce, but it was destroyed in a later attempt to make prints from it.[7] Niépce was successful again in 1825. He made the View from the Window at Le Gras, the earliest surviving photograph from nature (i.e., of the image of a real-world scene, as formed in a camera obscura by a lens), in 1826 or 1827.[20] Because Niépce's camera photographs required an extremely long exposure (at least eight hours and probably several days), he sought to greatly improve his bitumen process or replace it with one that was more practical. Working in partnership with Louis Daguerre, he developed a somewhat more sensitive process that produced visually superior results, but it still required a few hours of exposure in the camera. Niépce died in 1833 and Daguerre then redirected the experiments toward the light-sensitive silver halides, which Niépce had abandoned many years earlier because of his inability to make the images he captured with them light-fast and permanent. Daguerre's efforts culminated in what would later be named the daguerreotype process, the essential elements of which were in place in 1837. The required exposure time was measured in minutes instead of hours. Daguerre took the earliest confirmed photograph of a person in 1838 while capturing a view of a Paris street: unlike the other pedestrian and horse-drawn traffic on the busy boulevard, which appears deserted, one man having his boots polished stood sufficiently still throughout the approximately ten-minute-long exposure to be visible. Eventually, France agreed to pay Daguerre a pension for his process in exchange for the right to present his invention to the world as the gift of France, which occurred on 19 August 1839. Meanwhile, in Brazil, Hercules Florence had already created his own process in 1832, naming it Photographie, and an English inventor, William Fox Talbot, had created another method of making a reasonably light-fast silver process image but had kept his work secret. After reading about Daguerre's invention in January 1839, Talbot published his method and set about improving on it. At first, like other pre-daguerreotype processes, Talbot's paper-based photography typically required hours-long exposures in the camera, but in 1840 he created the calotype process, with exposures comparable to the daguerreotype. In both its original and calotype forms, Talbot's process, unlike Daguerre's, created a translucent negative which could be used to print multiple positive copies, the basis of most chemical photography up to the present day. Daguerreotypes could only be replicated by rephotographing them with a camera.[21] Talbot's famous tiny paper negative of the Oriel window in Lacock Abbey, one of a number of camera photographs he made in the summer of 1835, may be the oldest camera negative in existence.[22][23] John Herschel made many contributions to the new field. He invented the cyanotype process, later familiar as the "blueprint". He was the first to use the terms "photography", "negative" and "positive". He had discovered in 1819 that sodium thiosulphate was a solvent of silver halides, and in 1839 he informed Talbot (and, indirectly, Daguerre) that it could be used to "fix" silver-halide-based photographs and make them completely light-fast. He made the first glass negative in late 1839. In the March 1851 issue of The Chemist, Frederick Scott Archer published his wet plate collodion process. It became the most widely used photographic medium until the gelatin dry plate, introduced in the 1870s, eventually replaced it. There are three subsets to the collodion process; the Ambrotype (a positive image on glass), the Ferrotype or Tintype (a positive image on metal) and the glass negative, which was used to make positive prints on albumen or salted paper. Many advances in photographic glass plates and printing were made during the rest of the 19th century. In 1884, George Eastman developed an early type of film to replace photographic plates, leading to the technology used by film cameras today. In 1891, Gabriel Lippmann introduced a process for making natural-color photographs based on the optical phenomenon of the interference of light waves. His scientifically elegant and important but ultimately impractical invention earned him the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1908. Black-and-white See also: Monochrome photography All photography was originally monochrome, or black-and-white. Even after color film was readily available, black-and-white photography continued to dominate for decades, due to its lower cost and its "classic" photographic look. The tones and contrast between light and dark shadows define black and white photography.[24] It is important to note that some monochromatic pictures are not always pure blacks and whites, but also contain other hues depending on the process. The cyanotype process produces an image composed of blue tones. The albumen process, first used more than 150 years ago, produces brown tones. Many photographers continue to produce some monochrome images, often because of the established archival permanence of well processed silver halide based materials. Some full color digital images are processed using a variety of techniques to create black and whites, and some manufacturers produce digital cameras that exclusively shoot monochrome. Color Color photography was explored beginning in the mid-19th century. Early experiments in color required extremely long exposures (hours or days for camera images) and could not "fix" the photograph to prevent the color from quickly fading when exposed to white light. The first perm